1. Perception and Personality

2. Perception, Attribution and Learning1

3. The Perception Process
ATTENTION
The Perceived
The Perceiver
ORGANIZATION
Patterns
Schemas
Scripts
PERCEPTION 5

4. Comprehending Perception
We all have a different store of knowledge.
We all therefore interpret the world around us differently.
Understanding relies upon the speaker and his audience having the same perception of the required outcome.

5. Perception is a 'Learned Experience'
It is the “awareness” of the external world (or some aspect of it, through one or more of our senses and, the interpretation of these by our mind.

6. Understanding
Understanding is achieved by interpreting current experience using past experience as a source of reference, and establishing a context upon which to base this new information. In other words:
We are only able to understand today in terms of, and because of, our past experiences.
Yet, we also know that 'Today' is unlike 'Yesterday'.
We inherit Yesterday's patterns and need them to interpret what our senses are experiencing in the present.
These patterns are simultaneously essential and yet out of date.

7. How do we perceive? We store a ‘model’ or memory of objects.
The process of perceiving involves ‘matching’ what our senses are experiencing to one of our ‘models.’
Perception is an active pattern-matching process.
We recognize the world because of our historical store of information.
We create our own unique world, our own interpretation of reality.

8. Patterns to Organize Sensations
Figure-Ground
We tend to organize sensations into figures and backgrounds.
Similarity
We tend to group similar items. Do you see alternating rows
of O’s and X’s or columns of alternating O’s and X’s?
O O O O O
X X X X X
Proximity
We tend to group elements that are close together. How
many groupings do you see at the left?
O O
O O
Closure
We tend to fill in the gaps in incomplete stimuli. Do you see
a rectangle or four lines?
Continuation
We tend to organize stimuli into continuous lines or patterns.
Do you see two intersecting lines or four lines?
Simplicity
We tend to reduce stimuli to their simplest shapes or patterns.
Do you see an overlapping rectangle and triangle or a
nonstandard shaped polygon? 6

9. Therefore:
Discovering a new perception adds to the database of patterns which already exists in our minds.
Once existing experience has been proved inadequate to correctly interpret an image, the brain supplements its store of knowledge with the new experience.
Once new experience becomes old experience, it is often difficult to imagine the state of mind prior to gaining this new insight.

10. Factors that Influence Perception
Factors in the perceiver
*Attitudes
*Motives
*Interests
*Experience
*Expectations
Factors in the target
*Novelty
*Motion
*Sounds
*Size
*Background
*Proximity
Factors in the situation
*Time
*Work setting
*Social setting
Perceptions

11. What is the perception process?
A process by which individuals:
Organize & interpret their sensory impressions, in order to give meaning to their environment.
What one perceive may be substantially
different from reality.

12. Organizational Applications of Perception
Employment Interviews
Self-fulfilling prophecies of performance
Performance evaluations
Employee effort
Employee loyalty

13. Managers Should Take Five Steps to Increase Perceptual Accuracy
Eliminate
or Reduce
Projections
Distinguish
among
Aspects of
Person’s
Behavior
STEP 3
Determine
if Facts or
Assumptions
STEP 2
STEP 1
Check
Conclusions
Gather information about behavior & attitudes 8

14. Attribution Judging what people are like and why they do what they do.
What is someone really like?
What makes a person behave they way s/he does?

15. One Makes Attributions in Three Major Steps: The Behavior Occurs; the Person Determines if it Was Intentional; if so, the Person Determines its Causes
Observe
behavior
What
Caused the
behavior?
Was the
behavior
intentional?
BEHAVIOR
OCCURS
Intentional
Unintentional
Situational
Cause
Luck!
Chance!
Personal
Cause 9

16. Correspondent Inferences
Using acts to judge dispositions.
We make judgments about what people are like based on what we are able to observe of their behavior.
Many causes of behavior.
People can conceal some of their traits.

17. Causal Attribution of Responsibility
Answering the question of WHY?
Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution
Consensus
Extent to which other people behave the same.
Consistency
Extent to which behavior is same at other times.
Distinctiveness
Extent to which behavior is the same in other contexts.

18. Internal and External Causes of Behavior
Employee Applies
for Promotion
Employees
Denied
Promotion
Employee
Receives
Promotion
Coworker
Attributes
Success to
Situational
Characteristics;
Boss’s
Supervision
Employee
Attributes
Failure to
Situational
Characteristics;
Interviewer’s
Attitude
Coworker
Attributes
Failure to
Personal
Characteristics;
Employee’s
Personality
Employee Attributes
Success to
Personal
Characteristics;
Employee’s Effort 11

19. Making Judgments = Errors
Fundamental Attribution Error
Actor-Observer Effect
Self-Serving Attribution
False Consensus
Stereotypes
Overcoming Bias in Social Perception
External Causes
Know your Stereotypes
Objective Factors
Rash Judgments

20. The Johari Window

21. How Little We Remember

22. Biographical Characteristics
Age
Gender
Marital Status
Birth Order
Number of Dependents
Personality Determinants
Heredity
Environment
Situation

23. What is Personality?
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others,
described in terms of measurable personality traits that a person exhibits.
Job fit -- job satisfaction!

24. Personality Attributes
Locus of Control
Achievement Orientation
Authoritarianism
Self-esteem
Risk Taking
Self-Monitoring
Self Efficacy

25. “Big Five” Dimensions Conscientiousness Extraversion-introversion
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Openness to Experience
Conscientiousness –low – irresponsible, disorganized, lacking self-discipline & unscrupulous
high – careful, through, responsible, organized, self-discipline & scrupulous
Extraversion-introversion – sociable, talkative, assertive & active or retiring, sober, reserved & cautious
Agreeableness – low – irritable, ruthless, suspicious, uncooperative & inflexible
high – good-natured, gentle, cooperative, forgiving & hopeful
Emotional Stability – low – anxious, depressed, angry, emotional, insecure & excitable
high – calm, enthusiastic, poised & secure
Openness to Experience – low – down-to-earth, insensitive, narrow, crude, and simple
high – imaginative, sensitive, intellectual & polished

26. Uniqueness Affectivity – moods Type A – Type B Self-Efficacy
High – sense of well-being
Type A – Type B
A seek more challenge -- overloaded
Self-Efficacy
Belief in one’s own ability to perform
Self-Esteem
Positive or Negative views about self
Achievement Motivation
Task Orientation

27. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Introvert-Extrovert
where you derive your energy
Sensing-Intuitive
where you obtain your information
Thinking-Feeling
analysis & logic versus pleasing people
Judging-Perceiving
how you make a decision

28. Kiersey Temperament Sorter
1.In most situations are you more
deliberate than spontaneous
spontaneous than deliberate
2.Is it worse to be
a softy
hard-nosed
3.Is it better to be
just
merciful

29. Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations
Psychological
Types
Focus and
Preferences
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Strengths
Focuses on people
and things; sociable;
outgoing
Focuses on thoughts
and concepts; reflective;
inwardly directed
Good at social
interaction; en-
thusiastic and
confident; insti-
gates action; open
and straightforward
Good at personal
interaction; stays calm
and focused; can con-
centrate intensely;
develops ideas; uses
discretion in talking
Intellectual super-
ficiality; intrusive;
lack of respect for
others’ privacy;
easily distracted
May lose touch
with outer world;
keeps people at
a distance; easily
preoccupied
Extroversion
Introversion 6

30. Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.)
Psychological
Types
Focus and
Preferences
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Strengths
Sensing
Intuitive
Thinking
Facts; data; details;
concrete; reality
based; present
oriented
Possibilities; hunches;
speculations; theor-
etical ; future oriented
Analysis; objective;
logic; impersonal;
justice; systematic
inquiry
Pragmatic; precise;
stable; results orient-
ed; sensible; system-
atic
Imaginative; concep-
tulizes easily; creative;
intellectually tenacious;
idealistic
Rational; analytical;
assertive; logical; care-
fully weighs alternatives;
firm but fair; explains
thoroughly
Lacks long-range
outlook; may reject
innovative ideas
Unrealistic; out of
touch; bored by
routine; scattered
Undervalues feel-
ings; overly anal-
ytical; insensitive;
critical; judgmental 7

31. Each Manager Has a Particular Personality Type That Focuses His or Her Attention and Presents Strengths and Weaknesses in Dealing With Situations as They Arise (Cont.)
Psychological
Types
Focus and
Preferences
Weaknesses
(if Overextended)
Strengths
Feeling
Judging
Perceiving
Sympathy;
subjective; humane; personal;
compassion; trust;
consideration
Organized; planned;
settled;control one’s
life; set goals; struc-
tured; routine
Pending; flexible;
curious; spontaneity;
tentative; let life
happen; undaunted by surprise; open to
change
Persuasive; empathic;
warm; sensitive; demon-
strative and expressive;
loyal
Plan, organize, and
control well; persistent;
decisive; conscientious;
reliable
Open minded; adaptable;
spontaneous; under-
standing; tolerant;
inquisitive
Overly sensitive;
moody; can become
emotionally over-
burdened
Close minded; in-
flexible; can jump to
conclusions too
quickly; intolerant;
judgmental
Indecisive; procrast-
inates; unfocused;
disorganized; im-
pulsive; may collect
data too long before
deciding 8

32. Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Selective Perception
Projection
Stereotyping
Halo Effect

33. Emotional Intelligence
Definition: Self-control, zeal, persistence, and the ability to motivate oneself.
The 5 Domains of Emotional Intelligence:
Knowing your own emotions
Managing your emotions
Motivating yourself
Empathy
Handling Relationships

34. Knowing Your Emotions
The first step, the fundamental competence on which all others are built
Self-Awareness: being aware of both our mood and our thoughts about that mood—the building block to the next step. . . Shaking off a bad mood
Ways of Attending to Emotions:
Self-aware
Engulfed
Accepting (laissez-faire)
Getting to understand your ‘Gut Feelings’
The Emotional Hijacking

35. Managing Emotions Finding a Balance Venting Emotions
Anger (Don’t Suppress it but Don’t Act)
Reframe Anger (Paradigm Shifts)
1. Challenge the Triggering Thoughts
2. Understanding
Worry

36. Motivating Yourself “Mundanity of Excellence”
Anxiety, Anger & Depression Inhibit Learning
Impulse Control & Delayed Gratification
(the Marshmallow Experiment)
Memory is state-specific
Self-Efficacy can be learned, like optimism and hope
Flow
Self-Forgetfulness
Zone between Boredom & Anxiety

37. Empathy
Requires Enough Calm and Receptivity so Subtle Signs of Others can be Received
Benefits of Reading Non-verbal Cues:
Better Adjusted
More Popular
More Outgoing
More Sensitive

38. Handling Relationships
Key Social Competence: Expressing Own Feelings
Display Rules:
Minimizing
Exaggerating
Substituting
Emotional Judo

39. Values Content & Intensity Attributes
Lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and motivation.
Influence our perceptions.
Influence attitudes and behavior.
Sources of Value Systems develop over time.
Achievement, peace, cooperation, equity etc.

40. What are Attitudes?
Evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people, or events.
Either favorable or unfavorable.
Attitudes Reflect a Person’s Values.
Attitudes & Consistency for Individuals:
Among their attitudes
Between their attitudes and behavior
Align attitudes and behavior by changing one or the other.

41. Three Components of Attitudes
Evaluative – how we feel
Cognitive – personal knowledge
Behavioral – predisposition to act in a certain way.

42. Job Satisfaction Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
dis-satisfiers
lower level needs
working conditions
Motivators
higher level needs
satisfiers

43. Motivators  Worker Satisfaction
Motivators  Worker Satisfaction. Hygiene Factors  Worker Dissatisfaction.
HYGIENE FACTORS
MOTIVATORS
Job
Dissatisfaction
No Job
Dissatisfaction
No Job
Satisfaction
Job
Satisfaction
Pay
Status
Security
Working Conditions
Fringe Benefits
Policies and Administrative Practices
Interpersonal Relations
Meaningful Work
Challenging Work
Recognition for Accomplishments
Feeling of Achievement
Increased Responsibility
Opportunities for Growth
and Advancement
The Job Itself
Fig. 4-3

44. Consequences of Job Dissatisfaction
Turnover
Absenteeism
Job performance

45. Ability Directly influences level of performance and satisfaction.
Need an effective selection process.
Need effective promotion and transfer decisions.
Need to fine-tune jobs to fit individuals.

46. *Verbal Comprehension
Types of Ability
Intellectual Ability
*Number
*Verbal Comprehension
*Perceptual Speed
*Inductive Reasoning
Physical Ability
* Strength
*Flexibility
*Conditioning
*Balance
*Stamina