1. Ch. 2 Sociological Investigation

2. Why Is Sociological Research Necessary?
Sociologists obtain their knowledge of human behaviour through research
Results in a body of information that helps us move beyond guesswork and commonsense in understanding society.

3. Ways of knowing the world….
Personal: We discover for ourselves the things we know.
Tradition: People hold to a belief because everyone knows it to be true.
Authority: Experts tell us that something is true.
Religion: We accept the truths that our scriptures or religious officials advocate.
Media: Accept reports as “true” even if we know some sources better than others – media has bias
Science: We know what is true based on controlled, systematic observation.

4. Science and sociological theory
Science creates and supports theory: a statement that provides an explanation of a natural or social phenomenon based on well-documented evidence.
A theory must include the following criteria:
tested by experimentation and observation of the natural world.
is falsifiable (i.e. experiments must exist that could prove it false).
cannot be proven, only confirmed or disconfirmed.
subject to revision and change.

5. Three main types of research…
Scientific sociology (structural functionalism)
Systematic observation of social behaviour using empirical evidence
Interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction)
Describing and interpreting social behaviour in depth
Critical sociology (social conflict)
Finding and using strategies to promote social change

6. Scientific Sociology
Scientific explanations differ from other ways of knowing because they enable scientists to resolve differences in understanding the world.
More difficult in the social world.
Science uses an empirical approach to answer questions through a systematic collection and analysis of data
Sociologists use methods like surveys, experiments etc. and employ quantitative analysis to understand the world “scientifically”

7. Principles of Scientific Sociology
Concept: a abstract mental construct that represents part of the world in a simplified form
Variable: a concept whose values change from case to case: a concept that can “vary” and be measured
Measurement: a procedure for determining the value of a variable in a specific case
Defining concepts and operationalizing a variable:
Specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a value to a variable
Reliability: consistency in measurement
Validity: measuring what one intends to measure

8. Relationships among variables
Stated as hypotheses and theories
Cause and effect
A relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another
Types of variables
Independent: the variable that causes the change
Dependent: the variable that changes (its value depends upon the independent variable)

9. Correlation and causation
A relationship in which two or more variables change together
Spurious Correlation: An apparent but false relationship between two (or more) variables caused by some other variable – use “control” to investigate
Conditions for causality
Existence of a correlation or association
Independent variable precedes dependent variable
Non-spurious

10. Limitations of scientific sociology
The “ideal of objectivity”
Can social scientists be “value-neutral”?
Max Weber said not possible but can aim to be value-free through recognition of personal bias
Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions
The mere presence of the researcher might affect the behavior being studied
Social patterns change
Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult

11. Interpretive and critical sociology
Collect qualitative data in the real world
Reality is socially constructed
Can also be seen as “empirical”
Data are systematically analyzed and then interpreted/questioned
Methods include interviewing, observation or deconstruction
More subjective than scientific sociology but no less valid
Critical sociology aims to correct inequality but political overtones can create an agenda

12. Limitations in Sociological Research
The Problem of Gender in Research:
Androcentricity/Gynocentricity: Approaching a topic from a male-only or female-only perspective
Overgeneralization: Using data collected from one sex and applying the findings to both sexes
Gender blindness: The failure to consider the impact of gender at all
Double standards: Using different standards to judge males and females
Interference: a subject under study reacts to the sex of the researcher

13. Other limitations and problems in research
Problem of working with human subjects
Research motivated by ideology or blame
“blame analysis”
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Premature closure of inquiry
Halo effect: overall impression of a person influences the observer's findings
Control: not same as in the natural sciences
Hawthorne effect (esp. in experiments)

14. Other cont. The HALO EFFECT The HAWTHORNE EFFECT Edward Thorndike
Influence of impressions
The HAWTHORNE EFFECT
Elton Mayo
change in behaviour caused
by awareness of being studied

15. Overcoming Bias: “Bracketing”
First, make a list of your characteristics:
1. your gender;
2. your age;
3. your ethnic or national identification;
4. your religion or philosophy of life;
5. your political party or orientation;
6. your favourite psychological theory.
Add four more characteristics: words or phrases that are descriptive of you as an individual.

16. Bracketing (cont.)
1. List ways in which your characteristics might bias you in your efforts at research interviewing.
2. Then write how you might counteract these biases.
3. And then write how these efforts to counteract your biases might themselves lead to other biases!

17. Replication and Triangulation
Replication of research by other scientists
Creates greater reliability of results
Triangulation
Use multiple methods, researchers, data and/or theories to create fuller body of sociological knowledge
Increases validity
Triangulation seen as key to creating good, valid and reliable knowledge of the world around us

18. Summary (from Macionis and Gerber)

19. Dimensions of Sociological Research
A. Style of Research
Exploratory: to gain new knowledge
Descriptive: attempt to describe social reality
Explanatory: explain cause and effect relationships
B. Purpose or Focus of Research
Basic: to add to existing body of knowledge
Applied: to solve a perceived societal problem
C. Time Frame
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies
D. Data Collection Technique
Quantitative (numbers)
Qualitative (words)

20. Quantitative and Qualitative Orientations
Meaningfully expressed by numbers
Provides counts and measures
Qualitative
Meanings, concepts, and definitions
Assessed through words, images, and description

21. Theory and Research Cycle
A theory is a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to describe, explain, and (occasionally) predict social phenomena
Research is the process of systematically collecting information for the purpose of testing an existing theory or generating a new one.
The theory and research cycle consists of deductive and inductive approaches.
deductive: from theory to research observations
inductive: from observations to theory creation

22. Inductive and Deductive
Inductive logical thought
Reasoning that transforms specific observations into general theory
Induction “increases” from specific to general
Deductive logical thought
Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific hypotheses suitable for testing
Deduction “decreases” from general to specific

23. The Wheel of Research

24. Research Methods For Collecting Data
Research methods are strategies or techniques for systematically conducting research
Methods are chosen according to whom we wish to study and what we wish to learn

25. Quantitative research methods
Surveys: polls in which researchers gather facts or attempt to determine the relationship between facts. Survey data are collected by using self-administered questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or telephone surveys. Respondents are persons who provide data for analysis through interviews or questionnaires.
Secondary analysis (i.e. a content or historical analysis) of existing data, researchers use existing material and analyze data that originally was collected by others.
Experiments are carefully designed situations in which the researcher studies the impact of certain variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.

26. Qualitative Research Methods
Field research: study of social life in its natural setting: observe and interview people where they live, work, play.
Case study: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a single event, person, or social grouping. Often involves more than one method, such as participant observation, unstructured or in-depth interviews, and life histories.
Unstructured interview: extended, open-ended interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. Used in Field Research and Oral Histories.
Feminist Research Methods: Feminist researchers use the same methods, but in a different way
women-centred.
provide explanations that will help women improve their situation.

27. Multiple Methods
Many sociologists use triangulation and use of multiple approaches in a single study.
Often both quantitative and qualitative techniques used.

28. Research Ethics
The study of people (human subjects) raises vital questions about ethical concerns in sociological research.
The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association (CSAA) has a Code of Ethics that sets forth certain basic standards sociologists must follow in conducting research
SILLY VIDEO (computer generated) on research ethics in sociology

29. Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans
The Research Ethics Framework:
“Norms for the ethics of research involving human subjects are developed and refined within an ever-evolving societal context, elements of which include the need for research and the research community, moral imperatives and ethical principles, and the law.”
From

30. Guiding Ethical Principles
Respect for Human Dignity
Respect for Free and Informed Consent
Respect for Vulnerable Persons
Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality
Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness
Balancing Harms and Benefits
Minimizing Harm
Maximizing Benefit

31. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation
Select and define topic
Review the literature
Develop key questions to ask
Assess requirements for study
Consider ethical issues

32. Putting It All Together: Ten Steps in Sociological Investigation
Select a research methodology
Collect the data
Interpret the findings
State conclusions
Publish the findings