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Module: Chemistry 1
Carbon Chemistry

2. The units in this module are:
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The units in this module are:
C1a – Cooking
C1b – Food Additives
C1c – Smells
C1d – Making crude oil useful
C1e – Making Polymers
C1f – Designer Polymers
C1g – Using Carbon Fuels
C1h - Energy
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3. C1a - Cooking Why we cook foods Methods of cooking Cooking proteins
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C1a - Cooking
Why we cook foods
Methods of cooking
Cooking proteins
Raising agents
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Why do we cook foods?
We cook foods for a number of reasons. Some of them are:
To kill harmful microbes that may cause food poisoning
To make the food easier to digest
To improve the flavour of the food
To improve the texture of the food
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5. How can we cook foods? There are several ways to cook foods.
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How can we cook foods?
There are several ways to cook foods.
Baking and roasting
In an oven. Hot air surrounds the food
Cakes, meat
Boiling
In boiling water. Vegetables can lose vitamins
Eggs, potatoes
Steaming
In steam above water. Maintains vitamins.
Vegetables, fish
Frying
In hot oil
Chips, eggs
Grilling
Under a grill. Food is heated by direct radiation
Steak
Microwaving
Uses waves to cook the food
Fish, ready meals
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Cooking Proteins
Eggs are a good source of proteins. We know it is a chemical change because the appearance changes.
When you heat up proteins, the molecule changes shape. We say is has been denatured.
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Raising Agents
When we make a cake it is important it rises. We add a raising agent.
Baking powder is a raising agent which contains sodium hydrogen carbonate.
When it is heated it decomposes (breaks down)
Sodium Hydrogen  Sodium Water + Carbon
Carbonate Carbonate Dioxide
2 NaHCO  Na2CO H2O CO2
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9. C1b - Food Additives Types of food additives E-numbers
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C1b - Food Additives
Types of food additives
E-numbers
Emulsifiers and Antioxidants
Active packaging
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10. Types of Additives Food colours Antioxidants Emulsifiers Flavour
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Types of Additives
Food additives are chemicals added to food to improve or enhance it.
Food colours
Make the food look more attractive
Antioxidants
Slows down food going off by slowing down the reaction with oxygen
Emulsifiers
Keeps ingredients thoroughly mixed
Flavour
Improve the flavour of the food
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11. E-Numbers E100 – 199 Food colours E200 – 299 Preservatives E300 – 399
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E-Numbers
Some additives have been approved for use in the EU. These additives have E-numbers. The E-number tells us what the additive is used for.
E100 – 199
Food colours
E200 – 299
Preservatives
E300 – 399
Antioxidants
E400 – 499
Emulsifiers E
Flavourings
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12. Emulsifiers Oil and water do not mix
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Emulsifiers
Oil and water do not mix
Emulsifiers keep them mixed together in mayonnaise.
An emulsifier molecule has two parts.
The hydrophilic head bonds to water molecules.
The hydrophobic tail bonds to the oil molecules.
This prevents oils molecules from joining together.
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Active Packaging
Active packaging can be used to improve the safety or quality of food.
Examples
Wrapping in plastic film keeps out oxygen and water which keeps the food crisp
Some packaging removes water to stop food inside going off
Antioxidants are added to some foods or packaging to stop them reacting with oxygen.
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15. C1c - Smells Esters Making esters Properties of perfumes Solvents
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C1c - Smells
Esters
Making esters
Properties of perfumes
Solvents
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16. Esters Esters are a group of chemicals that provide scents.
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Esters
Esters are a group of chemicals that provide scents.
They can occur naturally or can be made synthetically
Esters can be used in foods like sweets
They can also be used in perfumes
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Making Esters
Esters can be made by reacting an organic acid with an alcohol. It produces an ester and water. A drop of concentrated sulphuric acid acts as a catalyst.
Organic acid Alcohol  Ester Water
Methanoic acid + Ethanol  Ethyl Methanoate + Water
Marzipan
Benzoic acid
Methanol
Methyl benzoate
Wintergreen
Salicylic acid
Methyl salicylate
Pear drops
Ethanoic acid
Ethanol
Ethyl ethanoate
Pineapple
Butanoic acid
Methyl butanoate
Scent
Acid
Alcohol
Ester
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18. Properties of Perfumes
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Properties of Perfumes
Perfumes need certain properties if they are to be used.
Evaporate easily
Perfume particles reach noses and people can smell it
Non-toxic
Doesn’t poison us
Not react with water
Doesn’t react with sweat
Insoluble
Doesn’t wash of easily
Non-irritant
Able to be put on the skin
We can smell perfumes because they evaporate when put on the skin. This is because the skin is warm.
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19. Solvents Esters can be used as solvents
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Solvents
Soluble
If a substance can be dissolved in a liquid
Insoluble
If a substance cannot be dissolved in a liquid
Solute
The substance that is dissolved
Solvent
The liquid which does the dissolving
Esters can be used as solvents
Ethyl ethanoate can be used as nail varnish remover
Nail varnish in insoluble in water so water cannot be used to take off varnish. A nail varnish remover must be used.
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21. C1d - Making Crude Oil Useful
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C1d - Making Crude Oil Useful
Separating crude oil
Properties of fractions
Cracking
Problems with crude oil
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Separating Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons contain hydrogen atoms and carbon atoms.
The crude oil can be split into more useful products by fractional distillation.
Vapour enters at the bottom of the tower. As it passes up the tower, it cools. Fractions with high boiling points condense and are collected at the bottom. Fractions with low boiling points condense and are collected at the top.
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23. Properties of Fractions
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Properties of Fractions
Bigger molecules have higher boiling points
Bigger molecules are more viscous
Bigger molecules are less flammable
Hydrocarbon molecules in fractions are held together by forces of attraction called intermolecular forces.
The stronger these forces are, the higher the boiling point.
Bigger molecules have stronger intermolecular forces.
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Cracking
The fractions that are used as fuels are in much higher demand.
Oil companies can break large molecules into more useful, smaller molecules.
This is called cracking.
Cracking is a thermal decomposition reaction and requires heat and a catalyst.
Cracking also converts large alkane molecules into smaller alkane molecules and an alkene molecule.
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25. Problems with Crude Oil
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Problems with Crude Oil
Crude oil is a very useful chemical. However, there are lots of problems with it.
Environmental problems
Oil spills can pollute the seas, harm wildlife when they are coated with oil and beaches can be damages.
Political problems
Countries can argue and begin wars over who owns the oil.
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27. C1e - Making Polymers Alkanes Alkenes Polymerisation
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C1e - Making Polymers
Alkanes
Alkenes
Polymerisation
Polymerisation diagrams
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Alkanes
Alkanes are a group of hydrocarbons that contain only single covalent bonds. Known as saturated hydrocarbons.
Alkanes have the general formula, CnH2n+2
Each carbon must have 4 bonds
Each hydrogen must have 1 bond
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Alkenes
Alkenes are a group of hydrocarbons that contain one or more double covalent bonds. Known as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Alkenes have the general formula, CnH2n
We can distinguish between alkanes and alkenes using bromine water.
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Polymerisation
Polymers are long chained molecules. The basic unit in a polymer is called a monomer.
ethene + ethene + ethene  Poly (ethene)
single units  many units
Monomer
Polymer
Styrene
Poly(styrene)
Propene
Poly(propene)
Chloroethene
Poly(chloroethene)
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31. Polymerisation Diagrams
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Polymerisation Diagrams
We can show polymerisation by diagrams.
The double bond in the monomer splits open.
The double bond has become single bond
The same groups are attached to the carbon atoms.
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33. C1f - Designer Polymers Uses of polymers Gore-Tex
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C1f - Designer Polymers
Uses of polymers
Gore-Tex
Disposal of polymers 1
Disposal of polymers 2
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34. Uses of Polymers Polymers have lots of different uses. Polymer Uses
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Uses of Polymers
Polymers have lots of different uses.
Polymer
Uses
Properties
Polythene
Plastic bags, containers
Light, flexible, easily moulded
Polystyrene
Packaging, insulation
Light, poor conductor of heat
Nylon
Clothing, climbing rope
Lightweight, waterproof, tough
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Gore-Tex
Nylon has been used in clothing because it is tough, lightweight and is waterproof.
However, it does not let water vapour out so sweat cannot escape.
Gore-Tex has a membrane layer attached to nylon.
Gore-Tex has all the advantages of nylon but it is also breathable.
This means it lets water vapour out.
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36. Disposal of Polymers 1 Polymers are non-biodegradable.
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Disposal of Polymers 1
Polymers are non-biodegradable.
There are different methods of disposing of polymers.
Landfill - Advantages
Landfill – Disadvantages
Polymers do not have to be sorted out.
Modern landfills do not create pollution.
Plastics break down to make methane which can generate electricity.
Distance to landfill sites so transport costs.
New sites are in the country and take up valuable land.
If too much methane builds up, explosions can occur.
Incineration - Advantages
Incineration – Disadvantages
Burning plastics produces lots of heat energy.
Polythene produces more energy than burning coal or oil.
Saves fossil fuels
No carbon dioxide put into atmosphere.
Burning at low temperatures can produce harmful dioxins
Old incinerators produce harmful gases.
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37. Recycling - Advantages Recycling – Disadvantages
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Disposal of Polymers 2
Recycling - Advantages
Recycling – Disadvantages
Plastic is lightweight even when compressed.
Cheaper to recycle plastics than make then from scratch.
Recycled plastics can be used to make lots of useful materials
Some plastics can be broken down to make raw materials for other products.
Plastics must be collected and sorted.
Many plastics contain materials that need to be removed.
Cost of transporting to nearest recycling plant.
Recycled materials are weaker
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39. C1g - Using Carbon Fuels Choosing a fuel Complete combustion
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C1g - Using Carbon Fuels
Choosing a fuel
Complete combustion
Incomplete combustion
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Choosing a Fuel
When you are choosing a fuel there are several things you need to consider.
Remember TEACUPS
T  toxicity, how poisonous is the fuel
E  energy value, how much energy does it give
A  availability, how easy is it to get
C  cost, how expensive is it
U  usability, how easy is it to use
P  pollution, does it produce harmful gases
S  storage, how easy is it to store
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41. Fuel + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water
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Complete Combustion
Burning of fuels requires oxygen. If there is plenty of
oxygen we get complete combustion.
Fuel + Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide + Water
The limewater turns cloudy proving carbon dioxide is made.
A colourless liquid collects which boils at 100ºC proving it is water.
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42. Incomplete Combustion
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Incomplete Combustion
If there is not enough oxygen present during combustion, then incomplete combustion takes place.
Fuel + Oxygen  Carbon Monoxide + Carbon + Water
Incomplete combustion produce less
heat, more soot and poisonous
carbon monoxide.
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44. C1h - Energy Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions Bond calculations
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C1h - Energy
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Bond calculations
Energy from fuels
Energy per gram
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45. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
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Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Chemical reactions involve a transfer of energy.
Exothermic reactions give out heat energy.
The temperature increases during an exothermic reaction.
Burning is a type of exothermic reaction.
Endothermic reactions take in heat energy.
The temperature decreases during an exothermic reaction.
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46. Overall change = bonds broken – bonds made
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Bond Calculations
Each bond requires a specific amount of energy to break it.
When a bond is made, it releases a specific amount of energy.
We can work out an overall energy change by:
Overall change = bonds broken – bonds made
4 x C—H = 4 x 413 = x C = O = 2 x 805 = 1610
1 x O = O = 1 x 498 = x O – H = 4 x 464 = 1856
Overall change = 2150 – 3466
= Joules
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Energy from Fuels
We can compare the energy given out by different fuels using a calorimeter.
Energy = mass x specific heat x temp rise
Sample results = 100g water heated by ethanol
Start temp = 20ºC End temp = 32ºC
Mass of lamp at start = g
Mass of lamp at end = g
Energy = 100 x 4.2 x 12
= 5040 Joules
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Energy per Gram
A useful comparison of the energy value of fuels is the energy given out per gram.
Energy per gram = energy (J)
mass of fuel burned (g)
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