2. Properties of Solutions

3. A Solution l A solution is made up of a solute and a solvent. l The solvent does the dissolving. l The solute is the substance that is dissolved. l If a solution is made of two liquids, the one in lesser quantity is the solute.

4. The Universal Solvent l Water is the universal solvent. l Water is a versatile solvent because of its attraction to other molecules and its polarity. l Most of the water on the Earth is not pure, but rather is present in solutions.

5. Water

6. Salt Solutions l Table salt (NaCl), like a great many ionic compounds, is soluble in water. l The salt solution is also an excellent conductor of electricity. l This high level of electrical conductivity is always observed when ionic compounds dissolve to a significant extent in water.

7. Salt Solutions l The process by which the charged particles in an ionic solid separate from one another is called dissociation.

8. Salt Solutions

9. l You can represent the process of dissolving and dissociation in shorthand fashion by the following equation.

10. Other Solutions l Water is not only good at dissolving ionic substances. It also is a good solvent for many covalent compounds. l Consider the covalent substance sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, as an example.

11. Like Dissolves Like l Although water dissolves an enormous variety of substances, both ionic and covalent, it does not dissolve everything. l The phrase that scientists often use when predicting solubility is “like dissolves like.”

12. Like Dissolves Like l The expression means that dissolving occurs when similarities exist between the solvent and the solute.

13. Making Solutions l A salt dissolves faster if  it is stirred or shaken,  the particles are made smaller, and  the temperature is increased.

14. Making Solutions l In order to dissolve the solvent molecules must come in contact with the solute. l Stirring moves fresh solvent next to the solute. l The solvent touches the surface of the solute. l Smaller pieces increase the amount of surface of the solute.

15. Temperature and Solutions l For solids in liquids, as the temperature goes up the solubility goes up. l A higher temperature makes the molecules of the solvent move around faster and contact the solute harder and more often.

16. Temperature and Solutions l It speeds up dissolving. l Higher temperature usually increases the amount that will dissolve.

17. l How many grams of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) will dissolve in 100 g of water at 15ºC? (100 g)

18. l How many grams of sodium hydroxide will dissolve in 100 g of water at 40ºC? (140 g)

19. l At what temperature will 90 grams of Pb(NO 3 ) 2 dissolve in 100 g of water? (~50 ° C)

20. l At what temperature will 30 grams of KNO 3 dissolve in 100 g of water? (20 ° C)

21. l For gases in a liquid, as the temperature goes up the solubility goes down.

22. l For gases in a liquid, as the pressure goes up the solubility goes up.

23. How Much Solute? l Solubility - The maximum amount of substance that will dissolve at that temperature (usually measured in grams/liter). l If the amount of solute dissolved is less than the maximum that could be dissolved, the solution is called an unsaturated solution.

24. How Much Solute? l A solution which holds the maximum amount of solute per amount of the solution under the given conditions is called a saturated solution.

25. How Much Solute? l A supersaturated solution contains more solute than the usual maximum amount and is unstable. They cannot permanently hold the excess solute in solution and may release it suddenly. l A seed crystal will make the extra come out.

26. How Much? l Generally, a supersaturated solution is formed by dissolving a solute in the solution at an elevated temperature, at which solubility is higher than at room temperature, and then slowly cooling the solution.

27. l If 45 g of KCl is dissolved in 100 g of water at 60ºC, is the solution unsaturated, saturated or supersaturated? (saturated)

28. l If 90 g of Pb(NO 3 ) 2 is dissolved in 100 g of water at 40ºC, is the solution unsaturated, saturated or supersaturated? (supersaturated)

29. l If 30 g of KNO 3 is dissolved in 100 g of water at 20ºC, is the solution unsaturated, saturated or supersaturated? (saturated)

30. l If 10 g of KClO 3 is dissolved in 100 g of water at 50ºC, is the solution unsaturated, saturated or supersaturated? (unsaturated)

31. Liquids l Miscible means that two liquids can dissolve in each other. l Immiscible means they cannot.

32. l Oil and water are immiscible.

33. Measuring Solutions

34. Concentration l Chemists never apply the terms strong and weak to solution concentrations. l Instead, use the terms concentrated and dilute.

35. Concentration l Concentration is a measure of the amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solvent. l A concentrated solution has a large amount of solute. l A dilute solution has a small amount of solute.

36. Molarity l For chemistry applications, the concentration term molarity is generally the most useful. l Molarity is the number of moles of solute in 1 Liter of the solution. liter of solution moles of solute M =

37. Molarity l Note that the volume is the total solution volume that results, not the volume of solvent alone. l Suppose you need 1.0 Liter of a 1 M copper (II) sulfate solution.

38. Molarity l STEP 1: Measure a mole of copper (II) sulfate.

39. Molarity l CuSO 4 – Copper: 63.5 g – Sulfur: 32.1 g – Oxygens: 16.0 g x 4 = 64.0 g 159.6 g

40. Molarity l STEP 2: Place the CuSO 4 in a volumetric flask.

41. Molarity l STEP 3: Add some water to dissolve the CuSO 4 and then add enough additional water to bring the total volume of the solution to 1.0 L.

42. Example l What is the molarity of a solution with 2.0 moles of NaCl in 4.0 Liters of solution? M = 4.0 L moles liters 2.0 mol M = 0.50 M

43. Problem l What is the molarity of a solution with 3.0 moles dissolved in 250 mL of solution? M = 0.25 L moles liters 3.0 mol M = 12 M

44. Problem l How many moles of NaCl are needed to make 6.0 L of a 0.75 M NaCl solution? M = 6.0 L moles liters 0.75 M = moles = 4.5 moles

45. Problem l 0.200 moles of NaOH are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 500. mL. What is the concentration? (0.400 M)

46. Problem l 1.25 moles of NaCl are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 625 mL. What is the concentration? (2.00 M)

47. Problem l How many moles are in 2.00 L of a 3.00 M solution of sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 )? (6.00 mol)

48. Problem l How many moles are in 1500 mL of a 3.2 M solution of nitric acid (HNO 3 )? (4.8 mol)

49. Example l 10.3 g of NaCl are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 250 mL. What is the concentration? 58.5 g l NaCl – Sodium: 23.0 g – Chlorine: 35.5 g

50. Example, cont l 10.3 g of NaCl are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 250 mL. What is the concentration? 58.5 g 1 mol10.3 g = 0.176 mol

51. Example, cont. l 10.3 g of NaCl are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 250 mL. What is the concentration? M = 0.25 L moles liters 0.176 mol M = 0.70 M

52. Problem l 20.3 g of NaOH are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 500. mL. What is the concentration? (1.02 M)

53. Problem l 80.6 g of KCl are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 500. mL. What is the concentration? (2.16 M)

54. Problem l 125 g of NaC 2 H 3 O 2 are dissolved in a small amount of water then diluted to 750. mL. What is the concentration? (2.03 M)

55. Example l How many grams of CaCl 2 are needed to make 625 mL of a 2.00 M solution? M = 0.625 L moles liters 2.0 M = moles = 1.25 moles

56. Example, cont. l How many grams of CaCl 2 are needed to make 625 mL of a 2.00 M solution? 1 mol 111.1 g1.25 mol = 139 g 139 g of calcium chloride is added to enough distilled water to make a total volume of 625 mL.

57. Problem l How many grams of sugar are needed to make 125 mL of a 0.500 M C 6 H 12 O 6 solution? (11.3 g)

58. Problem l How many grams of sodium hydroxide are needed to make 500. mL of a 0.750 M NaOH solution? (15.0 g)

59. Problem l How many grams of aluminum nitrate are needed to make 600. mL of a 0.500 M Al(NO 3 ) 2 solution? (45.3 g)

60. l What is the molarity of a KNO 3 solution at 10ºC? (100 g of water = 100 mL of water) (1.88 M)

61. l What is the molarity of a Pb(NO 3 ) 2 solution at 61ºC? (3.02 M)

62. l What is the molarity of a KNO 3 solution at 71ºC? (11.9 M)

63. Dilution Adding Water to a Solution

64. Dilution l The number of moles of solute doesn’t change if you add more solvent. M 1 x V 1 = M 2 x V 2 l M 1 and V 1 represent the starting concentration and volume. l M 2 and V 2 represent the final concentration and volume.

65. Example l 2.0 L of a 0.88 M solution are diluted to 3.8 L. What is the new molarity? =M1M1 V1V1 M2M2 V2V2 0.88(2.0)3.8 M 2 = 0.46 M

66. Problem l 6.0 L of a 0.55 M solution are diluted to 8.8 L. What is the new molarity? (M 2 = 0.38 M)

67. Problem l You have 150 mL of 6.0 M HCl. What volume of 1.3 M HCl can you make? =M1M1 V1V1 M2M2 V2V2 6.0(150)1.3 V 2 = 690 mL

68. Problem l 6.0 liters of a 0.55 M solution are diluted to a 0.35 M solution. What is the final volume? (V 2 = 9.4 L)

69. Problem l You need 450 mL of 0.15 M NaOH. All you have available is a 2.0 M stock solution of NaOH. How do you make the required solution? =M1M1 V1V1 M2M2 V2V2 0.15(450)2.0 V 2 = 34 mL

70. Problem l You need 450 mL of 0.15 M NaOH. All you have available is a 2.0 M stock solution of NaOH. How do you make the required solution? You should take 34 mL of the 2.0 M NaOH and add (450 – 34) mL = 416 mL of distilled water to the solution.

71. Compounds in Aqueous Solution l The separation of ions when an ionic compound dissolves in water is called dissociation. l Although no compound is completely insoluble, compounds of very low solubility can be considered insoluble.

72. Compounds in Aqueous Solution l Using the solubility rules printed on page 6 of the NCDPI Reference Tables for Chemistry, determine whether the following salts are soluble in water. a) sodium chloride (soluble)

73. Compounds in Aqueous Solution b) mercury (I) acetate (soluble) c) potassium nitrate (soluble)

74. Compounds in Aqueous Solution d) nickel carbonate (insoluble) e) barium sulfate (insoluble)

75. Compounds in Aqueous Solution f) ammonium bromide (soluble) g) calcium sulfide (soluble)

76. l In a double-replacement reaction, two compounds exchange partners with each other to produce two different compounds. The general form of the equation is l AB + CD ---> AD + CB Double Replacement Reactions

77. l Signs that a double-replacement reaction has taken place include a color change, the release or absorption of energy, evolution of a gas, and formation of a precipitate.

78. l Write the net ionic equation for each of the following precipitation reactions. a) barium chloride + silver nitrate (Ag + + Cl -  AgCl) Double Replacement Reactions

79. b) lead (II) nitrate + potassium iodide (Pb 2+ + I -  Pb I 2 ) c) ammonium sulfate + barium nitrate (Ba 2+ + SO 4 2-  BaSO 4 ) Double Replacement Reactions

80. d) potassium sulfide + zinc acetate (Zn 2+ + S 2-  ZnS) e) strontium phosphate + aluminum hydroxide (Al 3+ + PO 4 3-  AlPO 4 ) Double Replacement Reactions