1. Innovative thinker (group 3)
Product Pricing Management
Financial Analysis

2. Learning objectives Introduce basic financial arithmetic.
Understand cost calculation.
Recognize how breakeven analysis, how its used and what are its shortcoming.
Understand the role of costs.
Analyses performance.
Recognize the need for financial ratio and performance metrics.

3. Basic financial Arithmetic
Definition:
Financial arithmetic is dynamic estimation of the value of money. The fundamental assumption of financial arithmetic is the certainty that the nominal value of money in circulation increases with time.

4. Types of Interest Rates
Simple interest
Compound interest
Nominal and Effective Interest Rates
Real Interest Rates
Geometric Rates of Return

5. Simple interest Formula Definition:
Interest is calculated on the original sum invested. Typically used only for a single time period.
Formula

6. Compound interest Formula Definition:
Compounding involves accumulating interest on previous interest payments, which will generate further interest.
Formula
The sum or future value accumulated after n periods is:
The present value of a future sum is:

7. Compound interest cont.….
The backbone of many time-value calculations are the present value (PV) and future value (FV) based on compound interest.
Present Value
PV = FV (1+r) n
Future Value
FV = PV (1+r) n
Note: The PV and FV formulas are the inverse of each other!

8. Nominal and Effective Interest Rates
Is when interest is compounded over a period different from that expressed by the interest rate, e.g. more than once a year.
Formula

9. Real Interest Rates Formula
The real interest rate is the interest rate after taking out the effects of inflation.
The nominal interest rate is the interest rate before taking out the effects of inflation.
Formula

10. Geometric Rates of Return
The rate of return between two dates, measured by the change in value divided by the earlier value.
The average of a sequence of geometric rates of return is found by a process that resembles compounding.
Average geometric rate of return is also referred to as the average compound rate of return.
Formula

11. Cost Calculation Definition:
All payments made by a firm in the production of a good or service are called the cost of production.

12. Types of Cost Opportunity cost Fixed cost Variable cost Total cost
Average cost
Average Fixed cost
Average Variable cost
Marginal cost

13. Opportunity cost Definition:
The value of the next best alternative that must be sacrificed when one makes a choice.

14. Fixed cost (FC) Formula Definition:
Are those costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced.
Formula
Total Fixed Cost = Total Cost – Total Variable Cost OR
Average Fixed Cost x Quantity

15. Variable cost (VC) Formula Definition:
Are those costs that do vary with the quantity of output produced.
Formula
Total Variable Cost = Total Cost – Total Fixed Cost OR
Average Variable Cost x Quantity

16. Total cost (TC) Definition:
the market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.
Formula
Total Cost = Total Fixed Cost + Total Variable Cost OR
Total Cost = Average Cost x Quantity

17. Average cost Definition:
Average costs can be determined by dividing the firm’s costs by the quantity of output it produces.
Formula
Average Cost = Average Fixed Cost + Average Variable Cost
Total Cost
or Average Cost =
Quantity

18. Average Fixed Cost Formula Total Fixed Cost
This is the fixed cost per unit of output. AFC steadily decreases as more of a good is produced.
Formula
Total Fixed Cost
Average Fixed Cost =
Quantity

19. Average Variable Cost Formula Total Variable Cost
This is the variable cost per unit of output. AVC will decrease, reach a minimum and then increase as more of a good is produced. The curve is U-shaped.
Formula
Total Variable Cost
Average Variable Cost =
Quantity

20. Marginal cost (MC) Formula MC = Change in Total cost
Definition:
Cost of producing one extra unit of output.
Formula
MC = Change in Total cost
Change in Quantity

21. Activity
Output
(Q)
Total fixed cost N$
Total variable cost
Total cost
Average fixed cost
Average variable cost
Average (total) cost
Marginal cost 50 - 3 88 4
100 9
150 10
158 16
200 17
205

22. BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS DEFINITION
The break even point is the point where the gains equal the losses. The point defines when an investment will generate a positive return. The point where sales or revenues equal expenses. The point where total costs equal total revenues. There is no profit made or loss incurred at the break even point. It is the lower limit of profit when prices are set and margins are determined.

23. Breakeven analysis Formula Break even point:
= (fixed cost)/(contribution per unit)
Where,
Contribution = selling cost – variable cost
Fixed cost = Contribution - profit

24. Application of break-even analysis in market conditions
Fixed Cost
Monthly Rental
$100
Insurance(600 per year, so 600/12 = 50 )
$50
TOTAL MONTHLY FIXED COST
$150
Variable Cost
Materials $3
Labor $4
TOTAL VARIABLE COST $7
Selling Price
$10

25. BREAK-EVEN POINT CALCULATION
Fixed Cost / (Selling cost – Variable Cost)
Break -Even Point = $150 / ($10 - $7)
= 50
To break-even the company must sell 50 units per month.
If the Company just broke even, then its Profit and Loss Statement would look like the following:
Monthly Profit and Loss Statement
Sales
Gross Sales
($10 per unit times 50 units)
$500
Less Cost of Goods Sold
($7 per unit times 50 units)
$350
Net Sales
$150
Expenses
Rent
$100
Insurance
$50
Total Expense
Net Profit $0

26. S A L E
UNITS SOLD

27. Activity 2
Mountain view is small, romantic bed and breakfast hotel located near Grahamstown, The charge of R500 per double room is for one night’s accommodation excluding breakfast. (Patrons can walk across the road to an independent coffee shop for a delicious breakfast) The retired couple who own and manage the hotel estimate that the variable cost per room is N$200 per day. This includes cost such as electricity, laundry, cleaning and utilities. The hotel’s fixed cost, which include council rates, water rates and land taxes, total R per year. The hotel has 10 double rooms. The hotel charges per room and a couple sharing a room will pay the same rate as a single person per room.
Required:
Contribution margin per unit of service (a unit of service is one night’s accommodation per room).
Contribution margin ratio
Annual breakeven point in units of service and in Rands of service revenue
The number of units of service required to earn a target net profit of R for the year (ignore income taxes)

28. Solution = R500 – R200 = R300 = R300/R500 = 0.60 = R420 000/R300
Contribution margin per unit of service
= nightly charge/room – variable cost/room
= R500 – R200
= R300
Contribution margin ratio
= Contribution margin per unit/nightly room charge
= R300/R500
= 0.60
Annual break even point in units of service
= fixed cost/contribution margin per unit
= R /R300
= 1400 nights of accommodation

29. Uses of B/E
Break-even analysis provides a quick estimate of how much the firm must sell to break even and how much profit can be earned if a higher sales volume is obtained.
Helps the business to determine the cost structures, and the number of units that needs to be sold in order to cover the cost or make a profit.
Help determine how practical the business idea is, and whether or not it is worth pursuing.
It is useful to see what can be done to reduce costs or increase sales.

30. LIMITATIONS OF BREAKEVEN ANALYSIS
Break-even analysis is only a supply side (i.e. costs only) analysis, as it tells you nothing about what sales are actually likely to be for the product at various prices.
It assumes that fixed costs (FC) are constant
It assumes average variable costs (VC) are constant per unit of output, at least in the range of likely quantities of sales.
It is difficult in determining whether a cost is fixed or variable using a breakeven. Additionally, break-even analysis ignores demand.

31. Role of Cost Definition:
Cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something. Cost is part of Cost management which is an activity of managers related to planning and control of costs.
Managers have to take decisions regarding use of materials, processes, product designs and have to plan costs or expenses to support the operating plan for their department or section.
It provides a variety of data for many day-to-day decisions as well as essential information for longer-range decisions.
To charge whatever they want for their products. The manager need cost price to decide the price.

32. Performance analysis
Examination of various financial performance indicators(such as return on assets and return on equity) in comparison with the results achieved by the competing firms of about the same size.
It also looks at the human resource managements, examination of the performance of current employees to determine if training can help reduce performance problems such as low outputs, uneven quality, excessive waste.
Performance analysis can also be analyzed more into details by looking at activity analysis, job analysis and task analysis.

33. Performance analysis cont.…..
It can also be analyzed as the process by which a manager or consultant examines and evaluate an employees work behavior by comparing it with preset standards, documents are results of the comparison and uses the results to provide feedback to the employees to show were improvements are needed and why.
Performance appraisals are employed to determine who needs what training and who will be promoted, demoted or retained.

34. Tools to assess Financial performance
Financial Ratio
Are ratio that can be extracted from the financial statement. It can be used to compare your firms performance during different time period.
Benchmarking
Is a way of measuring your product, services and processes against those of other organizations, in the same industry sector. This help the manager to assess the company’s performance.

35. Financial ratios Profitability Ratios Activity Ratios Liquidity Ratios
Productivity Ratios

36. Profitability Ratios
Profit on sales = net profit / net sales (how much does each $ of revenue contribute to profit, so if Profit on Sales = 12% this means that 12cents in each $ of revenue goes to profit)
Return on assets = net profit / total assets (how much is each $ of assets contributing to profit)
Return on net worth = net profit / net worth

37. Activity Ratios
Inventory turnover = cost of goods sold / average inventory at cost
(number of times in the year when average amt. Of inventory is completely sold out)
Asset turnover = net sales / average total assets
(are all assets being efficiently used to generate sales?)
Receivables turnover = net sales / average accounts receivable
(length of time it takes for customers to pay)

38. Liquidity Ratios Current ratio = current assets / current liabilities
Current liabilities to inventory = current liabilities / inventory NB
Liquidity ratio help companies answer the question of whether they will able to meet their debts?

39. Productivity Ratios Space productivity
= net sales / square foot of selling space
Personnel productivity
= selling expense / net sales
Accounts payable to sales
= accounts payable / net sales

40. Operating Performance Ratios
Fixed-Asset Turnover
Sales/Revenue Per Employee
Operating Cycle

41. Debt Ratio Overview of debts Debt Ratio Debt-Equity Ratio
Capitalization Ratio
Interest Coverage Ratio
Cash Flow To Debt Ratio

42. Investment Valuation Ratios
Per Share Data
Price/Book Value Ratio
Cash Flow Coverage Ratio
Price/Earnings Ratio
Price/Earnings To Growth Ratio
Price/Sales Ratio
Dividend Yield
Enterprise Value Multiple

43. Cash Flow Indicator Ratios
Operating Cash Flow/Sales Ratio
Free Cash Flow/Operating Cash Ratio
Cash Flow Coverage Ratio
Dividend Pay-out Ratio

44. Financial metrics Liquidity metrics Efficiency metrics
Leverage metrics
Profitability metrics
Valuation metrics
Growth Metrics

45. References
Charles T., (2000). Cost Accounting: Managerial Emphasis (10th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Varian, H., R. (2010). Intermediate microeconomics: A modern approach (8th Ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Solution Matrix Limited (2015). Financial Metrics Explained. Retrieved from
Lot, R. (2015). Financial Ratio Tutorial. Retrieved from