1. The 8 Parts of Speech Adjectives Adverbs
Conjunction
Interjection
Noun
Preposition
Pronoun
Verb
Adjectives
describe a noun
They answer 3 questions:
Which one
How many
What kind
Examples: blue, tall, three, a, the, that
Proper: Florida oranges
Articles: a, an, the
Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
Comparative: compares two things or people: larger
Superlative: compares more than two things or people: largest
Adverbs
describe a verb, an adjective, or another adverb
Adverbs tell:
How
When, Where
Why and under what circumstances.
Examples: grandly, later, downstairs, because

2. Adverbs Interjection Noun
The comparative form of an adverb compares two actions or things.
Example: slower
The superlative form of an adverb compares more than two actions or things.
Example: slowest
Conjunction
a word that joins words or groups of words in a sentence
3 Types
1. Coordinating- combine subjects, predicates and compound sentences
Examples: and, but, or
2. Correlative- used in pairs
Examples: either, or; neither, nor
3. Subordinating- begin a subordinate clause
Examples: because, as, although, after, as though, as if, as long as, as soon as, before, even though, if, in order that, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while
Interjection
a word or group of words that expresses strong feeling
Common Interjections
Aha, great, oh, phew,
Awesome, ha, oh, no,
Noun
names a person, place, thing, or idea
Common: names any person, place, thing or idea
Proper: names a specific person, place, thing, or idea
Singular: names one person, place, thing, or idea
Plural: names more than one person, place, thing or idea
Collective: names a group of people or things
Possessive: names who or what has something
Concrete: a noun that you can experience with one of your five senses
Abstract: ideas

3. Preposition Pronoun Verb takes the place of a noun
a word that relates a noun or a pronoun to some other word in a sentence
aboard as despite near since
about at down of through
above before during off to
across behind except on toward
after below for onto under
against beneath from opposite until
along beside in out up
amid between inside outside upon
among beyond into over with
around by like past without
Pronoun
takes the place of a noun
Antecedent: the noun that the pronoun refers to.
Example: Jason is eleven. He is in the sixth grade. Jason is the noun that he refers to.
Personal: refers to people or things
Subject: personal pronoun used as the subject
Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
Object: personal pronoun used as the direct or indirect object of a verb
Examples: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Possessive: shows ownership
Examples: my, your, her his, our, your, their, its
Indefinite: does not refer to a particular person, place, thing or idea
Examples: each, one, much, both, few, everyone, many
Reflexive and intensive: ends in self
Example: herself
Demonstrative: used as the subject
Example: This is the one.
Verb
Action verbs: name an action
Direct object: answers whom? or what after an action verb
Example: Sightseers paid the fees.
Transitive: has a direct object.
Example: Shelia read a book about Africa.
Intransitive: does not have a direct object.
Example: Sheila read in a great hurry.
Indirect object: answers to whom or for whom after an action verb
Example: Sightseers paid the guides fees.

4. Verb Kinds of Sentences Sentences
Linking verb: connects the subject of a sentence with a noun or adjective in the predicate
Predicate noun/nominative: a noun that follows a linking verb and tells what the subject is
Example: Zambia is a country.
Predicate adjective: an adjective that follows a linking verb and tells what the subject is like
Example: Zambia is large.
Common linking verbs:
be become seem appear feel taste
grow look
Verb phrase: two verbs together
Example: I am learning.
Helping verb: 1st verb in a verb phrase
Main verb: 2nd verb in a verb phrase
Kinds of Sentences
Sentence: a group of words that expresses a complete thought
2 Parts
Subject: names whom or what the sentence is about
Predicate: tells what the subject does or has
Simple subject: one word
Simple predicate: the verb
Complete subject: includes all of the words in the subject
Complete predicate: includes all of the words in the predicate of the sentence
Sentences
4 Kinds of Sentences
Declarative: ends in a period and makes a statement
Interrogative: ends with a question mark and asks something
Exclamatory: ends with an exclamation point and shows strong feeling
Imperative: ends with a period and commands someone to do something

5. Paragraph Content and Organization
Preposition
a word that relates a noun or a pronoun to some other word in a sentence
Prepositional phrase: a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun
Example: Take the book to the library.
Object of the preposition: the noun or pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase
Paragraph Content and Organization
Main idea: the big idea or most important idea
Topic Sentence: expresses the main idea; is usually the first sentence of the paragraph
Supporting idea: a fact that helps to prove the main idea
Supporting detail: fact that helps to prove both the main idea and the supporting ideas
Unifying idea: a logical flow of ideas demonstrated through the topic sentence
Transitional words and phrases- connectors; special words that help show how ideas are related
Example: first, last, mainly, also, although, as a result, second, in conclusion
Extraneous/Irrelevant details: details that do not belong in the paragraph because they do not support the topic
Redundant details: details that restate the same thing already stated
Clincher- the last sentence of the paragraph
Appositives
a noun that is placed next to another noun to identify it or add information about it
Usually in commas
Example: James Madison’s wife, Dolly, was a famous first lady.
Appositive phrase- a group of words that includes an appositive and other words that modify the appositive
Example: Madison, our fourth president, held many other offices.
Punctuation
Semicolon ;
Use a semicolon to join the main clauses of a compound sentence if they are not joined by a conjunction
Example: Jason is sixteen; he will get his driver’s license soon.
Colon :
Use a colon to indicate time, to introduce a list of items that ends a sentence, and after the salutation of a business letter
Examples: 12:33 Dear Sir: Please send the following students:

6. Homonyms Elements of Fiction
Words that sound alike or are spelled alike but have different meanings.
Homograph: spelled alike but have different meanings
Example: I saw the cat. The saw is broken.
Homophone: sound alike but have different spellings and different meanings.
Example: I know you saw that. He said no.
Figurative Language
Simile: compares two things using like or as
Metaphor: compares two things without using like or as
Personification: giving animals or things human qualities
Onomatopoeia: imitates the sound it describes (boom pow)
Idioms:
Hyperbole: extreme exaggeration (your mama jokes)
Mood/Tone: the atmosphere/how the author makes you feel
Alliteration: repeating the same consonant sound over and over (tongue twister)
Idiom: meaning is other than the literal meaning of the words (inside out)
Elements of Fiction
Fiction: writing invented by the author
Setting: time and place of the story
Characters: protagonist and antagonist
Point of View: vantage point (1st person or third person)
Theme: main message or moral of story
Plot: series of related events that happen in the story
Conflict: struggle or problem between characters in a story

7. The Research Process
Choose a topic- narrow the topic and make sure enough information is available
Gather information- do research using several sources
Use resources effectively- create source cards and note cards
Organize notes- create an outline and organize all of your notes
Write the report- follow the steps in the writing process
Compile a bibliography- list all of the sources used in creating the report
Internet- network of interconnected computer networks to transmit data (information super highway)
Search engine: used to locate web sites on the internet (Google)
Keyword: word entered to search for web sites
Encyclopedia- a comprehensive reference work containing articles on a wide range of subjects or on numerous aspects of a particular field, usually arranged in alphabetical order
Dictionary- a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given for each word, usually including meaning, pronunciation, and etymology
Atlas- a book or bound collection of maps, sometimes with supplementary illustrations and graphic analyses
Almanac- a usually annual reference book composed of various lists, tables, and often brief articles relating to a particular field or many general fields
Title page- contains info on the title and author
Index- an alphabetical list of names, places, and subjects treated in a printed work, giving the page or pages on which each item is mentioned
Glossary- a list of often difficult or specialized words with their definitions often placed at the back of a book
Thesaurus- a book of synonyms, often including related and contrasting words and antonyms
Table of contents- a list of the parts of a book or document organized in the order in which the parts appear
Periodicals: magazine published on a regular basis
Footnotes/endnotes: citation at the end of the page
Card Catalog: cards containing information on where to find books and information in a library
Newspaper: published on a daily basis, contains current events, opinions and advertisements.
www: world wide web
mail sent electronically over the internet
Database: a large collection of information usually in a computer
Plagiarize: using another author’s work as your own
Paraphrase-re-word or put into your own words
Summarize- give a brief synopsis of a passage
Legend- key to understanding a map

8. Clauses and Complex Sentences
Fragment: does not express a complete thought. It may be missing a subject, a predicate, or both.
Run-on: two or more sentences incorrectly written as one sentence.
Simple: contains a main clause (can stand by itself)
Example: Nat boarded the ship.
Compound: two simple sentences, or two main clauses, combined by a conjunction
Example: Nat boarded the ship, and the crowd waved.
Complex: has one main clause and one or more subordinate clause (cannot stand alone)
Example: The captain spoke to Nat, who had boarded the ship.
Compound Complex: two main clauses and a subordinate clause
Example: Stacy is smart and she is going to college because she applies herself.
Clauses and Complex Sentences
Clause: group of words that has a subject and a predicate and is used as a sentence or part of a sentence
2 Types of Clauses
1. Main clause (independent clause): can stand alone
Example: Mason watched television.
2. Subordinate clause (dependent clause): cannot stand alone
Example: while doing his homework.
Adjective Clause: modifies a noun or pronoun (tells which one, how many, and what kind)
Example: The boys that won the contest are now in Hollywood.
Adverb Clause: modifies the verb in the main clause of the sentence (tells when, where, how, why, or under what conditions)
Example: Before you can go, you have to clean up your room.
The Writing Process
Prewriting: collect ideas, brainstorm
Drafting: start writing sentences/paragraphs
Revising: putt the draft into final form
Editing/Proofreading: correct errors in grammar, publish the writing
Publishing/Presenting: type and present writing