2. Resonance March 7, 2014

5. Looking Ahead I’m still behind on grading the mid-term and Production Exercise #1… They should be back to you by Friday. Today: we’ll cover something called resonance Friday: Transcription exercise on quantity Danish and Estonian Next week: understanding vowels

6. Ghosts of Lectures Past Last time we learned: A complex wave can be built up out of sinewaves. These component sinewaves are called harmonics. The frequencies of these harmonics are always integer multiples of the fundamental frequency of the complex wave. Example: fundamental (F0) = 150 Hz Harmonic 1: 150 Hz Harmonic 2: 300 Hz Harmonic 3: 450 Hz, etc.

7. Some Notes on Music In western music, each note is at a specific frequency Notes have letter names: A, B, C, D, E, F, G Some notes in between are called “flats” and “sharps” 261.6 Hz440 Hz

8. Harmony Notes are said to “harmonize” with each other if the greatest common denominator of their frequencies is relatively high. Example: note A4 = 440 Hz Harmonizes well with (in order): A5 = 880 Hz (GCD = 440) E5 ~ 660 Hz(GCD = 220)(a “fifth”) C#5 ~ 550 Hz(GCD = 110)(a “third”).... A#4 ~ 466 Hz(GCD = 2)(a “minor second”) A major chord: A4 - C#5 - E5

9. Where Things Stand, part 2 Last time, we also learned that: We can represent the components of complex waves with a spectrum Frequency of harmonics on the x-axis Intensity of harmonics on the y-axis

10. Where Things Stand, part 3 We also got the sense that vowels may be distinguished on the basis of their spectral shapes.

11. Where Things Stand, part 4 Last but not least, we found out that we can represent spectral change over time with something called a spectrogram. time on the x-axis frequency on the y-axis intensity on the z-axis (represented by shading) One of the defining characteristics of speech sounds is that they exhibit spectral change over time.

12. Fake Speech Check out the spectrograms of our synthesized vowels:

13. Ch-ch-ch-ch-changes Check out the spectrograms of some sinewaves which change in frequency over time:

14. Funky Stuff Sounds that exhibit spectral change over time sound like speech, even if they’re not speech Example 1: sinewave speech Consists of three sinusoids, varying in frequency over time

15. Reality Check Note that real speech is more fleshed out, spectrally, than sinewave speech.

16. Funky Stuff Sounds that exhibit spectral change over time sound like speech, even if they’re not speech Example 2: wah pedal shapes the spectral output of electrical musical instruments

17. Last but not least The frequencies of harmonics are dependent on the fundamental frequency of a sound  We cannot change the frequencies of harmonics independently of each other To change the spectral shape of a speech sound, we have to change the intensity of different harmonics

18. How is this done? We can selectively amplify or dampen specific harmonics in a speech sound by taking advantage of a phenomenon known as resonance. Resonance: when one physical object is set in motion by the vibrations of another object. Generally: a resonating object reinforces (sound) waves at particular frequencies …by vibrating at those frequencies itself …in response to the pressures exerted on it by the (sound) waves.  Resonance makes sounds at those frequencies louder.

19. Resonance Examples Pretty much everything resonates: tuning forks bodies of musical instruments (violins, guitars, pianos) blowing across the mouth of a bottle pushing someone on a swing bathroom walls In the case of speech: The mouth (and sometimes, the nose) resonates in response to the complex waves created by voicing.

20. More on Resonance Objects resonate at specific frequencies, depending on: What they’re made of Their shape Their size Think: pipe organs Longer, larger tubes resonate at lower frequencies. Shorter, smaller tubes resonate at higher frequencies.

21. Traveling Waves How does resonance occur? Normally, a wave will travel through a medium indefinitely Such waves are known as traveling waves

22. Reflected Waves If a wave encounters resistance, however, it will be reflected. What happens to the wave then depends on what kind of resistance it encounters… If the wave meets a hard surface, it will get a true “bounce”: Compressions (areas of high pressure) come back as compressions Rarefactions (areas of low pressure) come back as rarefactions

23. Sound in a Closed Tube Java applet: http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/Waves/Lwave01/Lwave01Applet.html

24. Wave in a closed tube With only one pressure pulse from the loudspeaker, the wave will eventually dampen and die out What happens when: another pressure pulse is sent through the tube right when the initial pressure pulse gets back to the loudspeaker?

25. Standing Waves The initial pressure peak will be reinforced The whole pattern will repeat itself Alternation between high and low pressure will continue...as long as we keep sending in pulses at the right time This creates what is known as a standing wave. When this happens, the tube will vibrate in response to the motion of the standing wave inside of it. = it will resonate.

26. Tacoma Narrows Movie Also check out: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw

27. Disaster!

28. A Minor Disaster The pressure waves of sound can set up standing waves in objects, too. Check out the Mythbusters video online: www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMg_nd-O688

29. Resonant Frequencies This is important: a standing wave can only be set up in a tube if pressure pulses are emitted from the loudspeaker at the right frequency. What is the right frequency? That depends on: how fast the sound wave travels through the tube how long the tube is Basically: the longer the tube, the lower the frequency Why?

30. Establishing Resonance A new pressure pulse should be emitted right when: the first pressure peak has traveled all the way down the length of the tube and come back to the loudspeaker.

31. Establishing Resonance The longer the tube, the longer you need to wait for the pressure peak to travel the length of the tube.  longer period between pressure pulses  lower frequency F0  F0 

32. Making the Leap First: let’s check out the pop bottle demo To relate resonance to speech, we need to add two elements to the theory: 1.It is possible for sound waves of more than one frequency to resonate in a tube at the same time. 2.The vocal tract is a tube that is open at one end (the mouth)… so it behaves a little differently from a closed tube.

33. Higher Resonances It is actually possible to set up more than one standing wave in a tube at the same time. First Resonance Second Resonance Q: Will the frequency of the second resonance be higher or lower than the first?

34. First Resonance Time 1: initial impulse is sent down the tube Time 2: initial impulse bounces at end of tube Time 3: impulse returns to other end and is reinforced by a new impulse Resonant period = Time 3 - Time 1 Time 4: reinforced impulse travels back to far end

35. Second Resonance Time 1: initial impulse is sent down the tube Time 2: initial impulse bounces at end of tube + second impulse is sent down tube Time 3: initial impulse returns and is reinforced; second impulse bounces Time 4: initial impulse re-bounces; second impulse returns and is reinforced Resonant period = Time 2 - Time 1

36. Different Patterns This is all fine and dandy, but speech doesn’t really involve closed tubes. Think of the vocal tract as a tube with: one open end a sound pulse source at the closed end (the vibrating glottis) The vocal tract will vibrate in response to the sound pulses… at the particular frequencies that will set up standing waves down its length.

37. Just So You Know A weird fact about nature: When a sound pressure peak hits the open end of a tube, it doesn’t get reflected back. Instead, there is an “anti-reflection”. The pressure disperses into the open air, and... A sound rarefaction gets sucked back into the tube.

38. Open Tubes, part 1

39. Open Tubes, part 2

40. The Upshot Standing waves in an open tube will look like this: 1st Resonance Frequency: F1 tube length 2nd Resonance Frequency: F2 = 3 * F1 3rd Resonance Frequency: F3 = 5 * F1

41. An Evenly Spaced Spectrogram Go to Praat and check out: My neutral vowel

42. The Point of It All A voiced speech sound is a complex periodic wave. It has a fundamental frequency (F0) In speech, a series of harmonics, with frequencies at integer multiples of the fundamental frequency, pour into the vocal tract from the glottis. Resonance: Those harmonics which match the resonant frequencies of the vocal tract will be amplified. Those harmonics which do not will be damped. The resonant frequencies of a particular articulatory configuration are called formants.

44. Take Another Look Re-consider our example complex wave, with component waves of 300 Hz and 500 Hz HarmonicFrequencyAmplitude 1100 Hz0 2200 Hz0 3300 Hz1 4400 Hz0 5500 Hz1 etc.

45. Standing Wave Terminology node: position of zero pressure change in a standing wave node

46. Standing Wave Terminology anti-node: position of maximum pressure change in a standing wave anti-nodes

47. The Upshot In open tubes, there’s always a pressure node at the open end of the tube Standing waves in open tubes will always have a pressure anti-node at the glottis First resonance in the articulatory tract glottis lips (open)