1. Why do globular clusters have more than one main sequence? Ref: Gratton et al. 2012, A&ARv, 20, 50

2. 1 st, a pretty picture…

3. Outline The lives of stars The lives of stars Some basic physics Some basic physics Importance of clusters Importance of clusters Globular clusters are really, really old! Globular clusters are really, really old! GC details GC details Observations Observations GC details GC details Models and formation Models and formation

4. Lives of Stars What do we know about stars? What do we know about stars? They are born They are born They live They live They die They die They spread their seed They spread their seed

5. Lives of Stars Stars appear in groups Stars appear in groups

6. Modeling a Star Four coupled first-order differential equations describe stellar structure

7. Physics of Stars Need a way to connect: pressure, opacity, and energy production Need a way to connect: pressure, opacity, and energy production Equation of State Opacity Energy generation

8. Star clusters Globular Cluster Open Cluster

9. Stellar evolution Our ideas of stellar evolution came about because of the single population theory of cluster formation. Our ideas of stellar evolution came about because of the single population theory of cluster formation. But there are still some outstanding issues But there are still some outstanding issues Blue stragglers Blue stragglers Mass loss Mass loss AGB stars AGB stars White dwarf cooling White dwarf cooling

10. Why are clusters important?

11. Overview of star formation Trigger Trigger Gravitational collapse Gravitational collapse Heating/rotation/magnetic fields slow collapse Heating/rotation/magnetic fields slow collapse Eventual H-fusion Eventual H-fusion Main sequence star Main sequence star

12. OB association formation

13. Globular clusters Spherical collection of gravitationally bound stars Spherical collection of gravitationally bound stars > 100,000 stars > 100,000 stars The Milky Way has about 200 The Milky Way has about 200 GCs are found in all galaxies of large size GCs are found in all galaxies of large size

14. Other galaxies M87 M87 More than 10,000 GCs More than 10,000 GCs Many visible in this image Many visible in this image

15. 1 Main sequence Photometric narrow MSs Photometric narrow MSs Proof of single-age Proof of single-age Single metallicity Single metallicity Until… Until…

16. 47 Tuc 16,700 ly away 120 ly across M V ~ 4.9 ~ full moon size

17. 47 Tuc Single MS? Single MS? Cannon et al. 1998

18. 47 Tuc Anti- correlation between CN and CH molecular bands Anti- correlation between CN and CH molecular bands

19. 47 Tuc Why is this impressive? Why is this impressive? Primordial in origin Primordial in origin Giant stars can mix N Giant stars can mix N MS stars can not! MS stars can not! Anticorrelations between O and Na & Mg and Al Anticorrelations between O and Na & Mg and Al Low mass stars do not make Na Low mass stars do not make Na Nor do they destroy Mg Nor do they destroy Mg Clear indication of external origin Clear indication of external origin

20. ω Cen 15,800 ly away 180 ly across ~ million M suns Core stars.1 ly from each other

21. ω Cen 2 or 3 MSs 2 or 3 MSs Bedin et al. 2004

22. NGC 2808 Typical GC 31,000 ly away ~12.5 Gyr old

23. NGC 2808 Triple MSs Triple MSs Piotto et al. 2007

24. Not just MSs Red giant branches of HR diagrams contain multiple populations of stars Red giant branches of HR diagrams contain multiple populations of stars Horizontal branches of HR diagrams too. Horizontal branches of HR diagrams too.

25. GC Formation Understanding of the multiple population phenomenon has changed Understanding of the multiple population phenomenon has changed Originally Originally Few peculiar clusters Few peculiar clusters Only massive clusters Only massive clusters Now Now Probably all GCs have multiple populations Probably all GCs have multiple populations

26. If 1-population theory wrong… GCs formed within large episodes of star formation in Giant Molecular Associations GCs formed within large episodes of star formation in Giant Molecular Associations Scenarios include several generations of stars Scenarios include several generations of stars Primordial, first, second… Primordial, first, second… We observe second generation now We observe second generation now First generation “polluted” the second First generation “polluted” the second

27. 4 additional mechanisms to consider Original homogeneities in the primordial material Original homogeneities in the primordial material Peculiar evolution of stars Peculiar evolution of stars Merging of GCs Merging of GCs GC pulling in interstellar material (“pollution”) GC pulling in interstellar material (“pollution”)

28. A possible model N-body & hydro. simulations N-body & hydro. simulations 1 st generation AGB star’s ejecta flows to GC center 1 st generation AGB star’s ejecta flows to GC center 2 nd generation forms with “different” metallicity 2 nd generation forms with “different” metallicity Concentrated at center of GC Concentrated at center of GC Problem: IMF either uncommon or unknown Problem: IMF either uncommon or unknown

29. A sticky detail The polluting ejecta must be “diluted” by fresh gas The polluting ejecta must be “diluted” by fresh gas Mandatory part of the process Mandatory part of the process Problem: how much of original gas went to 1 st generation? Problem: how much of original gas went to 1 st generation? Problem: how is pristine material gathered? Problem: how is pristine material gathered?

30. GC – Milky Way connection Present day GCs smaller now Present day GCs smaller now Star loss during initial formation Star loss during initial formation Problem: what role does dark matter play? Problem: what role does dark matter play?

31. Mass of GCs GCs used to be larger GCs used to be larger Original proto-GCs contained 50% of halo mass Original proto-GCs contained 50% of halo mass Of all stars in halo 1.2% are in GCs Of all stars in halo 1.2% are in GCs Other 98.8% are free but are in a HUGE volume Other 98.8% are free but are in a HUGE volume

32. Lingering questions Mechanisms of inhomogeneities Mechanisms of inhomogeneities Nature of polluters Nature of polluters Nucleosynthesis mechanisms Nucleosynthesis mechanisms Origin of diluting material Origin of diluting material Reliable 3-D hydrodynamical models of formation Reliable 3-D hydrodynamical models of formation

33. my Contribution I model 2 aspects of this problem I model 2 aspects of this problem Mean opacities necessary for stellar evolution Mean opacities necessary for stellar evolution Atmosphere models necessary for color-color diagrams Atmosphere models necessary for color-color diagrams

34. Example NGC 6752 NGC 6752 M V ~ 5.4 M V ~ 5.4 Age ~ 11.8 Gyr Age ~ 11.8 Gyr ~ 17,000 Lyr ~ 17,000 Lyr

35. 2 atmosphere models compared 2 atmosphere models compared Dotter et al. 2015, MNRAS, 446, 1641

36. Another pretty picture…

37. dSphs? Are GCs just small dwarf spheroidal galaxies? Are GCs just small dwarf spheroidal galaxies? GCs are closer to main MW GCs are closer to main MW GCs lost dark matter (dSphs did not) GCs lost dark matter (dSphs did not) GCs are compact GCs are compact dSphs evolved in isolation (GCs are part of MW) dSphs evolved in isolation (GCs are part of MW)