1. Section 7.5 Equivalence Relations Longin Jan Latecki Temple University, Philadelphia latecki@temple.edu

2. We can group properties of relations together to define new types of important relations. _________________ Definition: A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation iff R is reflexive symmetric transitive Two elements related by an equivalence relation are called equivalent. Examples of equivalence relations: Ex. 1, p. 508 Ex. 4, p. 509

3. An equivalence class of an element x: [x] = {y | is in R} [x] is the subset of all elements related to [x] by R. The element in the bracket is called a representative of the equivalence class. We could have chosen any one. Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on A. Then either [a] = [b] or [a] ∩[b] = Φ The number of equivalence classes is called the rank of the equivalence relation. Let A={a,b,c} and R be given by a digraph:

4. Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The equivalence classes of R partition the set A into disjoint nonempty subsets whose union is the entire set. This partition is denoted A/R and called the quotient set, or the partition of A induced by R, or, A modulo R. Definition: Let S 1, S 2,..., S n be a collection of subsets of a set A. Then the collection forms a partition of A if the subsets are nonempty, disjoint and exhaust A: Note that { {}, {1,3}, {2} } is not a partition (it contains the empty set). { {1,2}, {2, 3} } is not a partition because …. { {1}, {2} } is not a partition of {1, 2, 3} because none of its blocks contains 3.

5. It is easy to recognize equivalence relations using digraphs: The equivalence class of a particular element forms a universal relation (contains all possible arcs) between the elements in the equivalence class. The (sub)digraph representing the subset is called a complete (sub)digraph, since all arcs are present. Example: All possible equivalence relations on a set A with 3 elements:

6. 1. Determine whether the relations represented by these zero-one matrices are equivalence relations. If yes, with how many equivalence classes? 2. What are the equivalence classes (sets in the partition) of the integers arising from congruence modulo 4? 3. Can you count the number of equivalence relations on a set A with n elements. Can you find a recurrence relation? The answers are 1 for n = 1 2 for n = 2 5 for n = 3 How many for n = 4?

7. Theorem (Bell number) Let p(n) denotes the number of different equivalence relations on a set with n elements (which is equivalent to the number of partitions of the set with n elements). Then p(n) is called Bell number, named in honor of Eric Temple BellEric Temple Bell Examples: p(0)=1, since there is only one partition of the empty set: into the empty collection of subsets p(1)=C(0,0)p(0)=1, since {{1}} is the only partition of {1} p(2)=C(1,0)p(1)+C(1,1)p(0)=1+1=5, since portions of {1,2} are {{1,2}} and {{1},{2}} p(3)=5, since, the set { 1, 2, 3 } has these five partitions. { {1}, {2}, {3} }, sometimes denoted by 1/2/3. { {1, 2}, {3} }, sometimes denoted by 12/3. { {1, 3}, {2} }, sometimes denoted by 13/2. { {1}, {2, 3} }, sometimes denoted by 1/23. { {1, 2, 3} }, sometimes denoted by 123.

8. Proof (Bell number) : We want to portion {1, 2, …, n}. For a fixed j, A is a subset of j elements from {1, 2, …, n-1} union {n}. Note that j can have values from 0 to n-1. We can select a subset of j elements from {1, 2, …, n-1} in C(n-1,j) ways, and we have p(n-1-j) partitions of the remaining n-1-j elements. ■

9. Theorem: If R1 and R2 are equivalence relations on A, then R1∩R2 is an equivalence relation on A. Proof: It suffices to show that the intersection of reflexive relations is reflexive, symmetric relations is symmetric, and transitive relations is transitive.

10. Definition: Let R be a relation on A. Then the reflexive, symmetric, transitive closure of R, tsr(R), is an equivalence relation on A, called the equivalence relation induced by R. Example:

11. Theorem: tsr(R) is an equivalence relation. Proof: We need to show that tsr(R) is still symmetric and reflexive. Since we only add arcs vs. deleting arcs when computing closures it must be that tsr(R) is reflexive since all loops on the diagraph must be present when constructing r(R). If there is an arc then the symmetric closure of r(R) ensures there is an arc. Now argue that if we construct the transitive closure of sr(R) and we add an edge because there is a path from x to z, then there must also exist a path from z to x (why?) and hence we also must add an edge. Hence the transitive closure of sr(R) is symmetric.