1. CS 206 Introduction to Computer Science II 01 / 30 / 2009 Instructor: Michael Eckmann

2. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Today’s Topics Questions/comments Program 1 will be due by 11:59pm. on Tuesday February 3rd. start algorithm analysis

3. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 HW Read handout on Algorithm Analysis and Chapter 5.

4. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis An algorithm is a specific set of instructions for solving a problem. The amount of time an algorithm takes to finish is often proportional to the amount of input –sorting 1 million items vs. sorting 10 items –searching a list of 2 billion items vs. searching a list of 3 items Problem vs. algorithm --- a problem is not the same as an algorithm. Example: Sorting is a problem. An algorithm is a specific recipe for solving a problem. –bubbleSort, insertionSort, etc. are different algorithms for sorting. So, when we're analyzing the running time --- we're analyzing the running time of an algorithm, not a problem.

5. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Algorithms are often analyzed for –the amount of time they take to run and/or –the amount of space used while running

6. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Some common functions (in increasing order) used in analysis are –constant functions (e.g. f(n) = 10 )‏ –logarithmic functions (e.g. f(n) = log(20n) )‏ –log squared (e.g. f(n) = log 2 (7n) )‏ –linear functions (e.g. f(n) = 3n – 9 )‏ –N log N (e.g. f(n) = 2n log n )‏ –quadratic functions (e.g. f(n) = 5n 2 + 3n )‏ –cubic functions (e.g. f(n) = 3n 3 - 17n 2 + (4/7)n )‏ –exponential functions (e.g. f(n) = 5 n )‏ –factorial functions (e.g. f(n) = n! )‏

7. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis The dominant term is what gives a function it's name among –cubic, quadratic, logarithmic, etc. It's more complex than this, but the dominant term can generally be picked out like: –if you determine a function for the running time of an algorithm to be say f(n) = log 2 n + 4n 3 it's dominant term is 4n 3 so ignoring constant multiplier, we have n 3 –we say that f(n) is O (n 3 ) (pronounced big-Oh en cubed)‏ An example of when it's a bit harder to determine –f(n) = 3n log(n!) + (n 2 + 3)log n is O(n 2 logn)‏

8. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Graphs of functions to get a more intuitive feel for the growth of functions, take a look at the handout with graphs.

9. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Let's look at the tables with examples of actual times for certain running times given large inputs shows that the time complexity of an algorithm is much more important than processor speed (for large enough inputs) even though processor speeds are getting faster exponentially

10. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Growth rates of functions are different than being able to say one function is less than another –e.g. x 2 + 100 is greater than x 3 for many initial values but as x increases above some value, x 3 will always be bigger The constant being multiplied by the dominant term is generally ignored (except for small amounts of input)‏ Big O notation ignores the constant multipliers of the dominant term and we say a phrase like: –linear search is big Oh en –when we mean that the linear search algorithm's time complexity grows linearly (based on n, the number of items in the search space).

11. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis When examining an algorithm, we usually count how many times a certain operation (or group of operations) is performed. See handout for reasonable choices of what operations we would count in different problems. This will lead us to determining the time complexity of the algorithm. We can consider best-case, worst-case and average-case scenarios.

12. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Let's consider 1 problem and 3 ways to solve it (using 3 different algorithms) and we'll analyze the running times of each. The Maximum contiguous subsequence problem: –Given an integer sequence A 1, A 2,..., A N, find (and identify the sequence corresponding to) the maximum value of  j k=i A k. The maximum contiguous subsequence sum is zero if all are negative. Therefore, an empty sequence may be maximum. Example input: { -2, 11, -4, 13, -5, 2 } the answer is 20 and the sequence is { 11, -4, 13 } Another: { 1, -3, 4, -2, -1, 6 } the answer is 7, the sequence is { 4, -2, -1, 6 }

13. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis The simplest is an exhaustive search (brute force algorithm.)‏ –that is, simply consider every possible subsequence and compute its sum, keep doing this and save the greatest –so, we set the maxSum = 0 (b/c it is at least this big) and we start at the first element and consider every subsequence that begins with the first element and sum them up... if any has a sum larger than maxSum, save this... –then start at second element and do the same... and so on until start at last element Advantages to this: not complex, easy to understand Disadvantages to this: slow Let's examine the algorithm. –decide what is a good thing to count –count that operation (in terms of the input size)‏

14. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis Let's consider this inefficient maximum continuous subsequence algorithm from page 171 in our text.

15. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis The exhaustive search has many unnecessary computations. Notice that  j k=i A k = A j +  j-1 k=i A k That is, if we know the sum of the first j-1 elements, then the sum of the first j elements is found just by adding in the jth element. Knowing that, the problem can be solved more efficiently by the algorithm that we are about to analyze. –We won't need to keep adding up a sequence from scratch

16. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis The second algorithm that we'll analyze uses the improvement just mentioned and the running time improves (goes down.)‏

17. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis A further improvement can come if we realize that if a subsequence has a negative sum, it will not be the first part of the maximum subsequence. –Why? Also, all contiguous subsequences bordering a maximum contiguous subsequence must have negative or 0 sums. –why?

18. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis A further improvement can come if we realize that if a subsequence has a negative sum, it will not be the first part of the maximum subsequence. –Why? –A negative value will only bring the total down (see Theorem 5.2 in textbook)‏ Also, all contiguous subsequences bordering a maximum contiguous subsequence must have negative or 0 sums. –why? –If they were >0, they would be attached to the maximum sequence (thereby giving it a larger sum). Those two aren't too hard to see, but by themselves won't allow us to reduce the running time to below quadratic. Let's go a bit further.

19. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis There are some observations in our textbook which are then proved on page 175 in Theorem 5.3 of the textbook. This will allow us to process the sequence by just going through the sequence once from start to finish (and hence get linear time performance.)‏ Specifically, while computing the sum of a subsequence, if at any time the sum becomes negative, we start considering sequences only starting at the next element. This is less intuitive than the other observations we made, but in my opinion not worth taking class time to cover in detail, so I leave it to you, if you wish to go over the observations in our textbook. But let's look at the linear algorithm and see if it is obvious that it is linear.

20. Michael Eckmann - Skidmore College - CS 206 - Spring 2009 Algorithm Analysis What's the point of that exercise: –1) get a feel for how to count how much work is being done in an algorithm –2) it is sometimes possible to get the running time of an algorithm down by exploiting facts about the problem. –3) it is good to think about such things in a course that mainly deals with data structures. Any guesses as to why I say this? –4) it is sometimes difficult to exploit some things about the problem to make a more efficient algorithm