1. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  What will happen when biodiversity degrades? The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 5 What will happen when biodiversity degrades?

2. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  In review Biodiversity means... Various kinds of organisms (genetic variation and species richness) have evolved through a range of interactions (a diversity of interspecific interactions), and as a whole, a diversity of ecosystems has been formed.

3. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Today’s Topics 1. Effects of extinction of a species 2. Effects of changes in biota 3. Effects of changes in landscapes What will happen when a species is eradicated? What will happen when biota change? What will happen when landscapes change? 4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock How do livestock affect plant diversity in grassland?

4. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. What will happen when a species is eradicated? 1) Food web 2) Species evolution 3) Seed dispersal 1. Effects of extinction of a species

5. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  1. Effects of extinction of a species 1) Food web Food web in Canadian forest Northern harrier Goshawk Golden eagle Great-horned owl LynxCoyote Red fox Wolf Passerine birds Spruce grouse Snowshoe hare Ground squirrel Red squirrel Small rodents Insects Fungi GrassesBog birchGrey willow White spruce Balsam poplar (revised Krebs et al. 2001) Willow ptarmigan

6. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  1. Effects of extinction of a species 1) Food web Simplification of food web (revised Krebs et al. 2001)

7. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  1. Effects of extinction of a species 1) Food web Increase? Influence on the species which did not have direct interaction (revised Krebs et al. 2001)

8. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Possibility of changes in evolutionary direction Cirsium amplexifolium var. muraii Cirsium amplexifolium Population density of Japanese deer in Kinkazan is very high. Evolution against grazing by deer Photo: A. Emanon Photo: Masashi Igari  1. Effects of extinction of a species 2) Species evolution

9. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  1. Effects of extinction of a species 3) Seed dispersal Plants which bear large seeds rely on large animals for their seed dispersal. Indian elephant Great hornbill Finlayson’s Squirrel Orange-bellied Flowerpecker Photo: Shumpei Kitamura

10. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  1. Effects of extinction of a species 3) Seed dispersal Population of large primate (small → large) Population and species richness of seedlings which bear large seeds decreases. (revised Chapman & Onderdonk 1998) Population of flying fox (small → large) The number of fruits which are eaten decreases. (revised McConkey & Drake 2006) Consumption ratio of fruits （ % ） Density of seeding (m -2 ) Number of seedling species (●) In a forest where the number of large animals decreases…

11. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Food web becomes simpler even if only one species within the food web is eradicated, and the extinction sometimes affects the population dynamic of the species which did not have direct interaction with the one eradicated. In cases where a plant and an animal continue to evolve through an arm’s race, if the plant species is eradicated, the evolutionary direction of the animal species may change. Plants which bear large seeds fail to spread their seeds if a large animal species is eradicated. Summary 1. Effects of extinction of a species

12. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. What will happen when biota change? 1) Changes in components of ecosystems 2) Number of useful species 3) Stability of ecosystem 2. Effects of changes in biota

13. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Secondary forest Plantation forest (Cedar forest) Conversion from secondary forest to monoculture plantation  2. Effects of changes in biota 1) Changes in components of ecosystems

14. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. A large amount but only one resource can be taken. A small amount but various kind of resources can be taken. Biota are drastically changed by tree-planting Secondary forest Monoculture plantation  2. Effects of changes in biota 1) Changes in components of ecosystems

15. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  2. Effects of changes in biota 2) Number of useful species (Nagaike et al. unpublished data ） Changes in the number of plant species The number of herbaceous plant species in a forest

16. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Plantation forests are intolerant against strong winds. Forests devastated by wind are intolerant against other natural disasters such as floods or landslides. Plantation forest blown down by typhoon (left: sakhalin fir, right: cedar) Changes in tolerance against natural disasters Photo: (left) National institute for Environmental Studies (right) Keizou Hirai  2. Effects of changes in biota 3) Stability of ecosystem

17. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  2. Effects of changes in biota 3) Stability of ecosystem Changes in tolerance against infectious disease Carps (Cyprinus carpio carpio) killed by Koi herpes virus. Photo: Masatomi Matsuoka

18. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  2. Effects of changes in biota 3) Stability of ecosystem Physical factors which affect incidence rate: waterside environment Concrete wall … Incidence rate is high. Various plants grow. … Incidence rate is low. Photo: Hiroki Yamanaka

19. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  2. Effects of changes in biota 3) Stability of ecosystem Diversity is high …incidence rate is low. Diversity is low …incidence rate is high. Biological factors which affect incidence rate: diversity of fish species

20. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Various numbers of plant species were planted in a grassland, and their standing crops were measured at the end of growth periods. Figures in the graph indicate the experimental years. (Tilman et al. 2002) Standing crop （ g m - 2 ） The relationships between plant diversity and productivity Difference in standing crops of three research plots whose numbers of plant species are different. Standing crops were also measured at the end of growth periods. (Bezemer & van der Putten 2007 ） (1) Productivity is lowest where species richness is high.  2. Effects of changes in biota 4) Fauna and productivity The more the number of species increases, the higher productivity is. (2)(3)

21. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Summary 2. Effects of changes in biota When biota of an ecosystem changes, availability of natural resources in the ecosystem also changes. The stability of an ecosystem tends to be greater in those whose species diversity is high. Biodiversity enhances many ecosystem functions, though the effects are uncertain.

22. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. What will happen when landscapes change? 1) Genetic variation 2) Risk of extinction 3) Combination of ecosystems 3. Effects of changes in landscapes

23. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 1) Genetic variation Changes in landscape due to development Primary forest (hilly land) Swamp forest Secondary forest Rice field Logging forest 010 km Change in land use around Lambir Hills National Park, Borneo, Malaysia 1963 1997

24. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Demographical fluctuation Environmental fluctuation Restricting individual migration between populations Degradation of genetic variation Expression of deleterious gene Extinction of local population Decrease of population Fragmentation / Isolation of habitat  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 1) Genetic variation

25. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Floridian Panther X-ray of tail Floridian Panther whose genetic variation is low Crossbreeding of Texan individual whose genes are different Disappearance of genetic disease Importance of genetic diversity Expression of recessive deleterious gene - Decline in quality of sperm - Deformity of tail - Back-combed hair Improvement of genetic variation (Hedrick 2001)  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 1) Genetic variation

26. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Decline in genetic variation  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 1) Genetic variation Distance between forests (km) Continuous forests Fragmented forests (Jump and Peñuelas 2006) Genetic differentiation between forests Genetic differentiation of European beech forest

27. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Local extinction probability of populations during 100 years (%) Habitat area of population (km 2 ) （ revised Agetsuma 2007 ） In the case of Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata), the smaller their habitat area is, the greater the possibility of local extinction is.  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 2) Risk of extinction Local extinction due to reduction of habitat

28. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Local extinction due to loss of indispensable environment Rhacophorus schlegelii arborea Habitat of adults Habitat of tadpoles Photo: Echigo-Matsunoyama Museum of Natural Science, ‘Kyororo’  3. Effects of changes in landscapes 3) Combination of ecosystems

29. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Summary 3. Effects of changes in landscapes Local populations decline because of degrading genetic variation. Probability of accidental extinctions increases due to demographical and environmental fluctuations. Species which need several kinds of habitats to live will be eradicated even if only one such habitat disappears.

30. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. How do livestock affect plant diversity in grasslands? 1) Grazing’s effects on grasslands 2) Species diversity in grasslands 4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock

31. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock 1) Grazing’s effects on grasslands Mongolian pasturage - Grasses makes livestock fat, and then humans can obtain nutrition from livestock in the form of meat, milk and dairy products. (See Chapter 7 in detail.)

32. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock 1) Grazing’s effects on grasslands Grazing by livestock Livestock usually eat grasses above ground only. …Grasses are heavily damaged but their roots and apical meristem remain. Livestock supply nutrients for grasses as dung. …Grasses can regrow using these nutrients.

33. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock 2) Species diversity in grasslands Species richness of pasture plants Number of species is highest where grazing pressure is intermediate. (Fujita 2006)

34. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock 2) Species diversity in grasslands (Fujita et al. 2009) Ridge Stream Near ridge Upper slope Lower slope Foot slope Valley bottom Soil moisture Low Intermediate High Species richness according to resource availability Species richness (/m 2 ) Grazing effects on species richness vary according to topography.

35. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock 2) Species diversity in grasslands Resource availability and grazing effects (Fujita et al. 2009) Stream Ridge Near ridge Upper slope Lower slope Foot slopeValley bottom Soil moisture is low. Grazing causes a negative effect by direct damage to plants. …Some plant species are eliminated because of the damage. Soil moisture is high. Grazing has a positive effect by improvement of light condition. …Plant species can coexist because of relaxing the competitive exclusion.

36. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Summary 4. The relationships between biodiversity and livestock In Mongolian pasturage, nomadic people indirectly affect plant diversity in grasslands by herding livestock. The relationships between grazing pressure and plant species diversity varies according to the intensity of grazing pressure and resource availability (soil moisture) of plants.

37. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Summary of Today’s Topics 1. Even if only one species is eradicated, interspecific interaction can be drastically changed. 3. Changes in landscapes bring local extinctions because of decline in genetic variation, reduction of habitats, loss of indispensable habitats, etc. 2. Changes in biota affect availability of natural resources or stability of ecosystems. What will happen when biodiversity degrades? 4. Livestock grazing effects do not always decrease the plant species diversity.

38. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Column: Why is genetic variation important? Chromosome from father Chromosome from mother Gene locus a b Rh+ Rh- Allele Gene locus and allele The rhesus blood-group system Rh+ Phenotype Chromosome from father Chromosome from mother Gene locus

39. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Chromosome from father Chromosome from mother Appearance of RDG (x) Locus 1 × ○ Locus 2 ○ ○ Locus 3 ○ × Locus 4 × ○ Locus 5 × × Recessive deleterious gene (RDG)  Column: Why is genetic variation important?

40. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Behavior of recessive deleterious gene in a case where genetic variation is high ×○○○ ○×○○ RDG does not appear. Father ○○×○ ○○○× Mother  Column: Why genetic variation is important? RDG does not appear. ×○○○ ○○×○ ×○○○ ○○○× ○×○○ ○○×○ ○×○○ ○○○×

41. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. ×○○○ ○○×○ Father ×○○○ ○○×○ Mother ×○○○ ×○○○ RDG appears. ×○○○ ○○×○ ○○×○ ×○○○ ○○×○ ○○×○  Column: Why genetic variation is important? Behavior of recessive deleterious gene in a case where genetic variation is low RDG does not appear.

42. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Exercises 1. This illustration shows a food web consisting of 8 species. If the goshawk is eradicated, how would the population of the remaining species change? White spruce GoshawkLynx Willow ptarmigan Red squirrel Insects Grey Willow Snowshoe hare Let’s do the exercises below:

43. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Exercises Let’s do the exercises below: 2. Degradation of biodiversity happens all over the world. Choose such an example near yourself and think what kind of effect brought the ecosystem.

44. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Glossary (1/3) Organisms’ tug-of-war over resources essential for surviving, such as food, light, nutrition, etc. ‘Intraspecific competition’ in the case of competition within the same species, and ‘interspecific competition’ in the case of competition among species.Competition One of two or more possible forms of a gene that are found at the same place on a chromosome. See column in details.Allele Ecosystem function means functions essential for the sustainability of ecosystems, such as productivity of plants, formation of soils, circulation of substances, etc. Among ecosystem functions, those that are available for human activities or which provide human welfare are called ecosystem services. See chapter 1 for details. Ecosystem function and service

45. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Glossary (2/3) A large area of land, especially in tropical countries, where only one kind of crop is cultivated.Plantation The place where a particular type of organism is normally found. Habitat must satisfy environmental conditions which are needed for the survival and reproduction of the organisms.Habitat Homozygosis means that there is the same allele in the gene locus. On the other hand, heterozygosis means there are different allele in a gene locus. See Column for details. Homozygosis / Heterozygosis A particular group of individuals of a species living in a particular area.Population

46. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Glossary (3/3) Gene which brings harmful effect in the case of homozygosis. See column for details. Recessive deleterious gene

47. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  References (1/2) Agetsuma, N. (2007) Minimum area required for local populations of Japanese macaques estimated from the relationship between habitat area and population extinction. International Journal of Primatology 28:97-106 Bezemer, T. M. and van der Putten, W.H. (2007) Diversity and stability in plant communities. Nature 446:E6-7 Chapman, C. A. and Onderdonk, D.A. (1998) Forests without primates: primate/plant codependency. American Journal of Primatology 45:127-141 Fujita, N. (2006) Sustainability of Mongolian nomadism from the viewpoint of pasture utilization. In Konagaya, Y. ed., “A Handbook of Mongolian Environments” pp.114-124, Kenbunsha (In Japanese) Fujita, N., Amartuvshin, N., Yamada, Y., Matsui, K., Sakai, S. and Yamamura, N. (2009) Positive and negative effects of livestock grazing on plant diversity of Mongolian nomadic pasturelands along a slope with soil moisture gradient. Japanese Society of Grassland Science 55:126-134 Agetsuma, N. (2007) Minimum area required for local populations of Japanese macaques estimated from the relationship between habitat area and population extinction. International Journal of Primatology 28:97-106 Bezemer, T. M. and van der Putten, W.H. (2007) Diversity and stability in plant communities. Nature 446:E6-7 Chapman, C. A. and Onderdonk, D.A. (1998) Forests without primates: primate/plant codependency. American Journal of Primatology 45:127-141 Fujita, N. (2006) Sustainability of Mongolian nomadism from the viewpoint of pasture utilization. In Konagaya, Y. ed., “A Handbook of Mongolian Environments” pp.114-124, Kenbunsha (In Japanese) Fujita, N., Amartuvshin, N., Yamada, Y., Matsui, K., Sakai, S. and Yamamura, N. (2009) Positive and negative effects of livestock grazing on plant diversity of Mongolian nomadic pasturelands along a slope with soil moisture gradient. Japanese Society of Grassland Science 55:126-134

48. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved. Hedrick, P.W. (2001) Conservation genetics: Where are we now? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 629-636 Jump, A.S. and Peñuelas, J. (2006) Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation in a wind-pollinated tree. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:8096-8100 Krebs, C.J., Boutin, S., Boonstra, R. (2001) Ecosystem dynamics of the boreal forest: the Kluane Project. Oxford University Press. McConkey, K. R. and Drake, D. R. (2006) Flying foxes cease to function as seed dispersers long before they become rare. Ecology 87:271-276 Tilman, D., Reich, P. B., Knops, J., Wedin, D., Mielke, T. and Lehman, C. (2002) Diversity and Productivity in a Long-Term Grassland Experiment. Science 294:843- 845 Hedrick, P.W. (2001) Conservation genetics: Where are we now? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 629-636 Jump, A.S. and Peñuelas, J. (2006) Genetic effects of chronic habitat fragmentation in a wind-pollinated tree. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:8096-8100 Krebs, C.J., Boutin, S., Boonstra, R. (2001) Ecosystem dynamics of the boreal forest: the Kluane Project. Oxford University Press. McConkey, K. R. and Drake, D. R. (2006) Flying foxes cease to function as seed dispersers long before they become rare. Ecology 87:271-276 Tilman, D., Reich, P. B., Knops, J., Wedin, D., Mielke, T. and Lehman, C. (2002) Diversity and Productivity in a Long-Term Grassland Experiment. Science 294:843- 845  References (2/2)

49. Copyright 2010 Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. All Rights Reserved.  Authors & Credits The Futurability of Biodiversity Chapter 5 What will happen when biodiversity degrades? AuthorsNaoki Agetsuma Atsushi Ushimaru Takuo Nagaike Zen-ichiro Kawabata Aya Hatada Martin Piddington ApplicationsCutPRO3 Real tough. Animal and Insect version (Design Office Kyowa) Microsoft PowerPoint ® Illustration & design Be4°TECH Koubou Yecoruka Photos Yuji Isagi Shumpei Kitamura Shoko Sakai Wataru Fujita Stewart Wachs A. Emanon Echigo-Matsunoyama Museum of Natural Science, ‘Kyororo’ Hiroki Yamanaka Masashi Igari Naoki Agetsuma National Institute for Environmental Studies Noboru Fuijita Ryo Tsujino Keizou Hirai Masatomi Matsuoka Shumpei Kitamura Data providerTakuo Nagaike