1. Religion in the Household 1. The individual and the nature of Roman Religion

2. The individual and the nature of Roman religion Romans had no notion of religious identity of an individual as distinct from identity as citizen citizen or family member In Contrast - modern individual religious identity as Christian, Catholic, Muslim, atheist, agnostic, Buddhist, etc., Ancient Rome: no institutions and activities set aside from everyday life solely for religious objectives Religion and its rituals were embedded in all institutions and activities – all pervasive Political and constitutional system was carried out within a framework of religious ceremonies and regulations which brought political action into the divine sphere

3. Agriculture and Religion Roman religion primarily concerned with agricultural success on which in turn prosperity of the state depended Festival Calendar connected to grain crops, wine-production, animal husbandry Example: the Robigalia, April 25: sacrifices to protect crops from blight; Festival of Ceres (goddess of corn) The Parilia, April 21: feast of shepherds

4. Religion and the Individual Most festivals on behalf of the city (carried out by priests/magistrates – officials of the state) Obligation of individual citizens was to abstain from work during ceremonies Unclear how it was observed in practice Official state religion was remote – offered no personal experience of the divine to the individual Individual’s religion not in state cult but in family, house, farm cults each one attended personally

5. The Roman Household domus = household includes all in the power (potestas) of the paterfamilias (oldest living male of the family): wife, children, (including adult sons) sometimes widowed mother, sister, aunt, all dependents living in the household including freedmen, freedwomen and slaves (even if they had separate residences still members of the domus), as well as the property – real estate as well as all moveable property. domus = household includes all in the power (potestas) of the paterfamilias (oldest living male of the family): wife, children, (including adult sons) sometimes widowed mother, sister, aunt, all dependents living in the household including freedmen, freedwomen and slaves (even if they had separate residences still members of the domus), as well as the property – real estate as well as all moveable property. domus can be seen as a living organism – the present members of the household provided and kept alive the link to its past and future – paterfamilias was in charge of the family cult; was his duty to keep that bond alive, domus can be seen as a living organism – the present members of the household provided and kept alive the link to its past and future – paterfamilias was in charge of the family cult; was his duty to keep that bond alive, Extremely important to continue a domus – children needed for tranmission of family name, citizenship, status, and property Extremely important to continue a domus – children needed for tranmission of family name, citizenship, status, and property If a man died without an heir – his domus ended; was absorbed into that of a relative (our other outsider – especially during proscriptions) If a man died without an heir – his domus ended; was absorbed into that of a relative (our other outsider – especially during proscriptions) Another important consequence of lack of heir - no one would remember and celebrate the accomplishments and the history of that particular family; Roman idea of immortality was to have accomplishments remembered by his descendants Another important consequence of lack of heir - no one would remember and celebrate the accomplishments and the history of that particular family; Roman idea of immortality was to have accomplishments remembered by his descendants

6. Religion in the Household Paterfamilias responsible for traditional rites of his family worship of the Lares and Penates as well as the sacra familiae inherited from his ancestors destined to be passed on to his descendants. The entire household (familia including slaves) would participate in the ceremonies On country estates all would gather for ceremonies to purify the fields and pray to the gods for protection and fertility of crops and herds. In household rituals were carried out for various stages of life (rites of passage): admission of baby into family, admission of child into adulthood, marriage, death and burial all were part of family religious responsibilities. Quite possible that for some Romans these private cults offered a separate religious world with personal experience of superhuman beings, community and belonging

7. The Lares Father of the Lares (who were twins ) was Mercurius - note the association with the new Roman government: the power was shared by 2 consuls in the Republic Father of the Lares (who were twins ) was Mercurius - note the association with the new Roman government: the power was shared by 2 consuls in the Republic Mother of Lares = Larunda (or the silent goddess) Mother of Lares = Larunda (or the silent goddess) In Ovid’s Fasti, Book 2, she is called Lara In Ovid’s Fasti, Book 2, she is called Lara Lara is a nymph, daughter of the river Almo Lara is a nymph, daughter of the river Almo

8. The Lararium Shrine of household gods Shrine of household gods Lares: spirits protecting variety of spaces including houses, crossroads, city (protecting state) Lares: spirits protecting variety of spaces including houses, crossroads, city (protecting state) Lares familiares: protecting spirits of the domus and its members (familia) Lares familiares: protecting spirits of the domus and its members (familia) Received offerings, sacrifices, prayers, could be appealed to for protection, safety, prosperity of the domus Received offerings, sacrifices, prayers, could be appealed to for protection, safety, prosperity of the domus Lararium located in atrium of house (or kitchen) Lararium located in atrium of house (or kitchen) Place included painting or statuettes Place included painting or statuettes

10. Lararium, house of the Vettii in Pompey

11. The atrium and tablinium

12. Private and Public Calendar links private and public religion Parentalia in February and Lemuria in May – festivals for the dead – focus on family ancestors; public aspect: on first day of Parentalia a Vestal Virgin performed rituals to the dead The Saturnalia in December: festival in households with role reversal between masters and slaves; merrymaking, giving of presents Public aspect: sacrifices at temple of Saturn opened the festival Liberalia on March 17: included rites of passage for boys passing into adulthood – took their toga virilis (at age 14) The Matralia, June 11 linked public ritual with private domestic worship. The public ceremony held at temple of Mater Matuta in the Forum Boarium. The matrons of Rome prayed first for their nephews and nieces, not for their own children; prayer repeated throughout city by women not just at temple ceremony. Festival calendar linked public ritual with private domestic worship: expressed that concerns of whole community were concerns of the family and vice versa.

13. The Vestal Virgins Only major female priesthood – emphasize connections between public and private College of six priestesses chosen at age of 5 to 7, lived in special house next to temple of Vesta Many privileged: right of making a will without a tutor (male guardian); Religious responsibilities and subject to penalties if failed by letting sacred fire go out or lost their virginity (buried alive if unchaste) Duties associated with ‘household’ activities: tending the sacred fire on sacred hearth of their temple; Guarded the storehouse (penus) and ritually cleaned it and expelled the dirt; gathered first ears of corn at harvest; ground and baked them to provide the sacred salted meal (mola salsa) used to sanctify victim a sacrifices Parallel between hearth of city and hearths of houses of citizen families Priestesses of state represented women of the household

14. Vestal Virgins Ambiguous status - both representative of matrons (married women) and virgins Ambiguous status important – between two categories – intermediate sexual status Vestals represented version of connection between religious life of home and community If anything went wrong in their house the safety, health and fertility of entire Roman people was threatened Rituals carried out by Vestals emphasize their importance to fertility of livestock and humans and thus for safety and fertility of community