1. Testing in the Small (aka Unit Testing, Class Testing) 1209

2. Unit Testing Focus on the smallest units of code: –Functions –Methods –Subroutines Frequently done (at least partially) during code development by code developers Often the target of testing frameworks such as JUnit

3. Each component is Tested in isolation from the rest of the system Tested in a controlled environment –Uses appropriately chosen input data –Uses component-level design description as guide

4. During Unit Tests Data transformations across the module are tested Data structures are tested to ensure data integrity

5. Unit Test Procedures Driver Module to be tested Stub Results Test cases

6. Two fundamental approaches: Black box –Based on specification –Inner structure of test object is not considered White box –Based on specification –Inner structure of test object is the basis of test case selection Effectiveness of black box is similar to white box, but the mistakes found are different. (Hetzel 1976, Myers 1978)

7. Black Box Unit Testing 1209

8. What is black-box testing? Unit (code, module) seen as a black box No access to the internal or logical structure Determine if given input produces expected output. Input Output

9. Black Box Testing Test set is derived from requirements Goal is to cover the input space Lots of approaches to describing input space: –Equivalence Classes –Boundary Value Analysis –Decision Tables –State Transitions –Use Cases –...

10. Advantage and Disadvantage Advantage: it does not require access to the internal logic of a component Disadvantage: in most real-world applications, impossible to test all possible inputs Need to define an efficient strategy to limit number of test cases

11. General Black Box Process Analyze requirements Select valid and invalid inputs Determine expected outputs Construct tests Run tests Compare actual outputs to expected outputs

12. Equivalence classes: Basic Strategy Partition the input into equivalence classes –This is the tricky part –It’s an equivalence class if: Every test using one element of the class tests the same thing that any other element of the class tests If an error is found with one element, it should be found with any element If an error is not found with some element, it is not found by any element Test a subset from each class

13. Basic strategy: Example:fact(n): if n =200 error if 0<=n<=20, exact value if 20<n<200, approximate value within.1% What classes can you see? G

14. Basic strategy: Example:fact(n): if n =200 error if 0<=n<=20, exact value if 20<n<200, approximate value within.1% Obvious classes are n<0, 0<=n<=20, 20<n<200, and 200<=n. Might be some subclasses here, also, but this is a good start.

15. Simple Example: Suppose you are building an airline reservation system. A traveler can be a child, an adult, or a senior. The price depends on the type of traveler. The seat reservation does not depend on the type of traveler. How many test cases can you identify for the reservation component and the billing component? G

16. Finding equivalence classes: Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification

17. Finding equivalence classes: Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN)

18. Finding equivalence classes: Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN) If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes (one invalid, two invalid)

19. Finding equivalence classes: Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN) If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes If a set of values is specified where each may be treated differently, create a class for each element of the set and one more for elements outside the set

20. Finding equivalence classes: Identify restrictions for inputs and outputs in the specification If there is a continuous numerical domain, create one valid and two or three invalid classes (above, below, and NaN) If a number of values is required, create one valid and two invalid classes If a set of values is specified where each may be treated differently, create a class for each element of the set and one more for elements outside the set If there is a condition, create two classes, one satisfying and one not satisfying the condition

21. Boundary Values: Programs that fail at interior elements of a class usually fail at the boundaries too. Test the boundaries. –if it should work for 1-99, test 0, 1, 99, 100. –if it works for A-Z, try @, A, Z, [, a, and z The hard part is identifying boundaries

22. Hints If a domain is a restricted set, check the boundaries. e.g., D=[1,10], test 0, 1, 10, 11 –It may be possible to test the boundaries of outputs, also. For ordered sets, check the first and last elements For complex data structures, the empty list, full lists, the zero array, and the null pointer should be tested Extremely large data sets should be tested Check for off-by-one errors

23. More Hints Some boundaries are not obvious and may depend on the implementation (use gray box testing if needed) –Numeric limits (e.g., test 255 and 256 for 8-bit values) –Implementation limits (e.g., max array size)

24. Boundary Value: in class Determine the boundary values for US Postal Service ZIP codes Determine the boundary values for a 15- character last name entry. G

25. Decision Tables Construct a table (to help organize the testing) Identify each rule or condition in the system that depends on some input For each input to one of these rules, list the combinations of inputs and the expected results

26. Decision Table Example Test CaseC1 Student C2 Senior Result Discount? 1TTT 2TFT 3FTT 4FFF Theater ticket prices are discounted for senior citizens and students.

27. Pairwise Testing

28. Problem 1 From Lee Copeland, A Practitioner’s Guide to Software Test Design, Artech House Publishers, 2004. A web site must operate correctly with different browsers: IE 5, IE 6, and IE 7; Mozilla 1.1; Opera 7; FireFox 2, 3, and 4, and Chrome. It must work using RealPlayer, MediaPlayer, or no plugin. It needs to run under Windows ME, NT, 2000, XP, and Vista, 7.0, and 8.0 It needs to accept pages from IIS, Apache and WebLogic running on Windows NT, 2000, and Linux servers How many different configurations are there? G

29. Problem 1 A web site must operate correctly with different browsers: IE 5, IE 6, and IE 7; Mozilla 1.1; Opera 7; FireFox 2, 3, and 4, and Chrome. It must work using RealPlayer, MediaPlayer, or no plugin. It needs to run under Windows ME, NT, 2000, XP, Vista, 7.0, and 8.0 It needs to accept pages from IIS, Apache and WebLogic running on Windows NT, 2000, and Linux servers How many different configurations are there? 9 browsers x 3 plugins x 7 OS x 3 web servers x 3 server OSs = 1701 combinations

30. Problem 2 A bank is ready to test a data processing system Customer types –Gold (i.e., normal) –Platinum (i.e., important) –Business –Non profits Account types –Checking –Savings –Mortgages –Consumer loans –Commercial loans States (with different rules): CA, NV, UT, ID, AZ, NM How many different configurations are there? From Lee Copeland, A Practitioner’s Guide to Software Test Design, Artech House Publishers, 2004.

31. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test

32. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business

33. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases

34. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases Choose a few that the programmers already ran

35. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases Choose a few that the programmers already ran Choose the tests that are easy to create

36. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases Choose a few that the programmers already ran Choose the tests that are easy to create List all combinations and choose first few

37. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases Choose a few that the programmers already ran Choose the tests that are easy to create List all combinations and choose first few List all combinations and randomly choose some

38. When given a large number of combinations: (options improve …) Give up and don’t test Test all combinations … miss targets, delay product launch, and go out of business Choose one or two cases Choose a few that the programmers already ran Choose the tests that are easy to create List all combinations and choose first few List all combinations and randomly choose some “Magically” choose a small subset with high probability of revealing defects

39. Orthogonal Arrays A 2-D array with the property –All pairwise combinations occur in every pair of columns Example: consider 3 variables (columns) with {A,B}, {1,2}, and (α,β) 123 11Aα 21Bβ 32Aβ 42Bα

40. Orthogonal Array Example 123 11Aα 21Bβ 32Aβ 42Bα Look at each pair of columns (1 and 2),( 1 and 3), and (2 and 3) Does each of the 4 pairings appear in each? (Yes, of course!)

41. Pairwise Testing Algorithm 1.Identify variables 2.Determine choices for each variable 3.Locate an orthogonal array 4.Map test cases to the orthogonal array 5.Construct tests

42. Example using Bank 1.Identify variables 1.Customers (4) 2.Account types (5) 3.States (6) 2.Determine choices for each variable 1.Customer types (Gold, Platinum, Business, Non Profit) 2.Account types (Checking, Savings, Mortgages, Consumer loans, Commercial loans 3.States (CA, NV, UT, ID, AZ, NM) 3.Locate an orthogonal array 4.Map test cases to the orthogonal array 5.Construct tests

43. Locate an orthogonal array (look up on web) 111 122 133 144 212 221 234 243 313 324 331 342 414 423 432 441 551 512 523 534 652 611 624 633 153 254 35 1 45 2 54 1 64 2

44. Map Test Cases (30) CACheckGold CASavePlat CAMortBusi CAConsNonP NVCheckPlat NVSaveGold NVMortNonP NVConsBusi UTCheckBusi UTSaveNonP UTMortGold UTConsPlat IDCheckNonP IDSaveBusi IDMortPlat IDConsGold AZCommGold AZCheckPlat AZSaveBusi AZMortNonP NMCommPlat NMCheckGold NMSaveNonP NMMortBusi CACommBusi NVCommNonP UTCommGold IDCommPlat AZConsGold NMConsPlat

45. Pairwise Summary When the combination is large, test all pairs, not all combinations Studies indicate that most defects are single or double-mode effects –Can be found in pairing –Few defects require more than two modes Orthogonal arrays have the pairwise property and can be found or generated

46. State Transition Testing

47. Build STD of system or component Cover the STD –Visit each state –Trigger each event –Exercises each transition –Exercise each path* * Might not be possible

48. Example Res Made Paid Cancelled Non Pay Ticketed Cancelled Cust Used Cust Order/start timer Payment made Ticket Printed Time Expires Ticket Delivered Cancel/ refund Cancel Customer makes reservation and has limited time to pay. May cancel at any time. Groups: How many tests to visit each state?

49. Example: Each State Res Made Paid Cancelled Non Pay Ticketed Cancelled Cust Used Cust Order/start timer Payment made Ticket Printed Time Expires Ticket Delivered Cancel/ refund Cancel 3 tests needed: From start to final From start to cancelled non-pay From start to Res Made to Cancelled Cust

50. Example: Each Event Res Made Paid Cancelled Non Pay Ticketed Cancelled Cust Used Cust Order/start timer Payment made Ticket Printed Time Expires Ticket Delivered Cancel/ refund Cancel 3 tests needed: From start to final From start to cancelled non-pay From start to Res Made to Cancelled Cust

51. Example: Each Transition Res Made Paid Cancelled Non Pay Ticketed Cancelled Cust Used Cust Order/start timer Payment made Ticket Printed Time Expires Ticket Delivered Cancel/ refund Cancel 5 tests needed

52. Use Case Testing Use the use cases to specify test cases Use case specifies both normal, alternate, and exceptional operations Use cases may not have sufficient detail –Beizer estimates that 30-40% of effort in testing transactions is generating the test data –Budget for this!

53. White-Box Testing Pfleeger, S. Software Engineering Theory and Practice 2 nd Edition. Prentice Hall, 2001. Ghezzi, C. et al., Fundamentals of Software Engineering. Prentice Hall, 2002. Pressman, R., Software Engineering A Practitioner’s Approach, Mc Graw Hill, 2005. Hutchinson, Marnie, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003. 0310

54. White Box Testing Also known as: –Glass box testing –Structural testing Test set is derived from structure of code Code structure represented as a Control Flow Graph Goal is to cover the CFG

55. Control Flow Graphs Programs are made of three kinds of statements: –Sequence (i.e., series of statements) –Condition (i.e., if statement) –Iteration (i.e., while, for, repeat statements)

56. Control Flow Graphs Programs are made of three kinds of statements: –Sequence (i.e., series of statements) –Condition (i.e., if statement) –Iteration (i.e., while, for, repeat statements) CFG: visual representation of flow of control. –Node represents a sequence of statements with single entry and single exit –Edge represents transfer of control from one node to another

57. Control Flow Graph (CFG) n1 Join n3 n1 Join Sequence If-then-else If-then Iterative

58. Control Flow Graph (CFG) n1 Join n3 n1 Join Sequence If-then-else If-then Iterative When drawing CFG, ensure that there is one exit: include the join node if needed

59. Example 1: CFG 1. read (result); 2. read (x,k) 3. while result < 0 then { 4. ptr  false 5. if x > k then 6. ptr  true 7. x  x + 1 8. result  result + 1 } 9. print result Draw CFG

60. Example 1: CFG 1. read (result); 2. read (x,k) 3. while result < 0 then { 4. ptr  false 5. if x > k then 6. ptr  true 7. x  x + 1 8. result  result + 1 } 9. print result 3 5 6 7 9 8 2 1 4

61. Example 1: CFG 3 4,5 6 Join 9 1. read (result); 2. read (x,k) 3. while result < 0 then { 4. ptr  false 5. if x > k then 6. ptr  true 7. x  x + 1 8. result  result + 1 } 9. print result 7,8 1,2 3 5 6 7 9 8 2 1 4

62. In Class: Write CFGs Example 2 1.if (a < b) then 2. while(a < n) 3. a  a + 1; 4. else 5. while(b < n) 6. b  b + 1; Example 3 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a  0 && b  0) then { 3. c  a + b; 4.if c > 10 then 5. c  max 6.else c  min } 7. else print ‘Done’ Example 4 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a  0 || b  0) then { 3. c  a + b 4. while( c < 100) 5. c  a + b; } 6. c  a * b

63. Write a CFG Example 2 1. if (a < b) then 2. while (a < n) 3. a  a + 1; 4. else 5. while (b < n) 6. b  b + 1; 1 2 3 Join 5 6

64. Answers Example 3 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a  0 && b  0) then { 3. c  a + b; 4. if c > 10 then 5. c  max 6. else c  min } 7. else print ‘Done’ 1,2 Join 3,4 5 6 Join 7

65. Answers Example 4 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a  0 || b  0) then { 3. c  a + b 4. while( c < 100) 5. c  a + b; } 6. c  a * b 1, 2 3 Join 4 5 6

66. Coverage Statement Branch Condition Path Def-use Others

67. Statement Coverage Every statement gets executed at least once Every node in the CFG gets visited at least once

68. Examples: number of paths needed for Statement Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003) 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6

69. 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 41

70. Branch coverage Every decision is made true and false Every edge in a CFG of the program gets traversed at least once Also known as –Decision coverage –All edge coverage –Basis path coverage Branch is finer than statement C 1 is finer than C 2 if –  T 1  C 1  T 2  C 2  T 2  T 1

71. Examples: number of paths needed for Branch Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003) 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6

72. 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 52

73. Condition coverage Every complex condition is made true and false by every possible combination –E.G., (x and y) x = true, y = true x=false, y=true x = true, y= false x =false, y = false There are lots of different types of condition coverage: Condition, multiple condition, condition/decision, modified condition/decision (MCDC), …I’m only covering the simplest. Condition coverage is not finer than branch coverage –There are pathological cases where you can achieve Condition and not Branch –Under most circumstances, achieving Condition achieves Branch

74. Condition Coverage: CFGs One way to determine the number of paths is to break the compound conditional into atomic conditionals Suppose you were writing the CFG for the assembly language implementation of the control construct If (A AND B) then C Endif (short circuit eval)(no short circuit eval) LD ALD A; in general, lots of BZ :endifLAND B; code for A and B LD BBZ :endif BZ :endifJSR C JSR C:endifnop :endif nop

75. AND Condition 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a == 0 && b == 0) then { 3. c  a + b } 4. else c  a * b paths: 1, 2A,2B,3, J 1, 2A, 2B, 4, J 1, 2A, 4, J 2A 2B Join 3 4 1

76. OR Condition 1. read (a,b); 2. if (a == 0 || b == 0) then } 3. c  a + b; 4. while( c < 100) 5. c  a + b;} Paths: 1, 2A, 3, 4, 5, 4 … J 1, 2A, 3, 4, J 1, 2A, 2B, 3, 4, 5, 4, … J 1,2A, 2B, J 2A 3 Join 4 2B 5 1

77. Path A path is a sequence of statements A path is sequence of branches A path is a sequence of edges

78. Examples: number of paths needed for Path Coverage? (from Hutchinson, Software Testing Fundamentals, Wiley, 2003) 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6

79. 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 2 3 4 7 5 1 8 9 6 516

80. Path Coverage-1 Every distinct path through code is executed at least once Example 1. read (x) 2. read (z) 3. if x  0 then begin 4. y  x * z; 5. x  z end 6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then 8. print y 9. else print ‘Invalid’ Test Paths: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 8, J2 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 9, J2 1, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 8, J2, 1, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 9, J2 1,2,3 4,5 Join1 6 7 8 Join2 9

81. Counting Paths It is not feasible to calculate the total number of paths

82. Linearly independent paths It is feasible to calculate the number of linearly independent paths The number of linearly independent paths is the number of end-to-end paths required to touch every path segment at least once A linearly independent path introduces at least one new set of process statements or a new condition

83. Cyclomatic Complexity Software metric for the logical complexity of a program. Defines the number of independent paths in the basis set of a program Provides the upper bound for the number of tests that must be conducted to ensure that all statements been have executed at least once For Edges (E) and Nodes (N) V(G) = E – N + 2

84. Examples: Complexity of CFGs 1 2 3 1 3,4 5 6 Join 3,4 5 Join N=3 E=2 E-N+2= 2-3+2= 1=V(G) N=1 E=0 E-N+2= 0-1+2= 1=V(G) N=4 E=4 E-N+2= 4-4+2= 2=V(G) N=3 E=3 E-N+2= 3-3+2= 2=V(G)

85. Example 1 2,3 6 10 8 4,5 9 7 11 V(G) = 11 – 9 + 2 = 4 Independent paths: 1-11 1-2-3-4-5-10-1-11 1-2-3-6-8-9-10-1…-11 1-2-3-6-7-9-10-1…-11

86. In Class: Compute the cyclomatic complexity 3 4,5 6 Join 9 7,8 1,2 1 2 3 Join 5 6 1,2 Join 3,4 5 6 Join 7 1, 2 3 Join 4 5 6

87. Example 1: CFG 3 4,5 6 Join 9 7,8 1,2 N=7 E=8 E-N+2= 8-7+2= 3=V(G)

88. Example 2 1 2 3 Join 5 6 N=6 E=8 E-N+2= 8-6+2= 4=V(G)

89. Answers 1,2 Join 3,4 5 6 Join 7 N=7 E=8 E-N+2= 8-7+2= 3=V(G)

90. Answers 1, 2 3 Join 4 5 6 N=6 E=7 E-N+2= 7-6+2= 3=V(G)

91. Independent Path Coverage Basis set does not yield minimal test set Example 1. read (x) 2. read (z) 3. if x  0 then begin 4. y  x * z; 5. x  z end 6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then 8. print y 9. else print ‘Invalid’ Cyclomatic complexity: 3 Test Paths: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 8, J2 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, J1, 7, 9, J2 1, 2, 3, 6, J1, 7, 8, J2, 1,2,3 4,5 Join1 6 7 8 Join2 9

92. Def-Use Coverage Def-use coverage: every path from every definition of every variable to every use of that definition is exercised in some test. Example 1. read (x) 2. read (z) 3. if x  0 then begin 4. y  x * z; 5. x  z end 6. else print ‘Invalid’ 7. if y > 1 then 8. print y 9. else print ‘Invalid’ 1,2,3 4,5 Join 6 7 8 9 Def: x, z Use: x Def: y, x Use: x, z Use: none Use: y Use: none Test Path: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, J

93. Strength of Coverage Statement Branch Def-Use Path Arrows point from weaker to stronger coverage. Stronger coverage requires more test cases. Condition

94. What paths don’t tell you Timing errors Unanticipated error conditions User interface inconsistency (or anything else) Configuration errors Capacity errors