1. Biosynthesis of carbohydrate polymers Starch in plants, glycogen in vertebrates These polymerization reactions utilize sugar nucleotides as activated substrates

2. Why sugar nucleotides? Their formation is metabolically irreversible, contributing to the irreversibility of pathways in which they are intermediates Nucleotide moiety provides potential interactions The substrate is activated because the nucleotidyl group is a good leaving group Tags the substrate, marking it for storage

3. Glycogen synthesis Glucose 6-phosphate is isomerized to glucose 1-phosphate by phosphoglucomutase UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase converts glucose 1-phosphate to UDP glucose using UTP and producing pyrophosphate Glycogen synthase attaches the UDP- glucose to the nonredcuing end of a branched glycogen molecule

5. Making bonds in glycogen Glycogen synthase requires as a primer an (  1-4) poly glucose chain or branch having at least eight glucose residues. Glycogen synthase cannot make the (  1-6) bonds found at branch points; these are formed by glycosyl (4-6) transferase

6. Branching glycogen Glycosyl (4-6) transferase catalyzes the transfer of a terminal fragment of six or seven glucose residues from the non- reducing end of a glycogen branch (having at least 11 residues) to the C6 hydroxyl group of a glucose residue at a more interior position of a glycogen molecule, generating a new branch

7. Branches can subsequently be modified by glycogen synthase Branches increase solubility of glycogen

8. Where does the primer come from? Glycogenin builds primers for glycogen synthase Tyrosine-194 of this protein is the the site of covalent glucose attachment (via UDP- glucose) This modified glycogenin binds to glycogen synthase, and the glycogen-bound glucose molecule is extended up to seven residues using UDP-glucose

9. Glycogenin stays bound to the single reducing end of glycogen as glycogen synthase takes over

10. Glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase are reciprocally regulated Details in text

11. Starch synthesis Analogous mechanism to glycogen synthase, but starch synthase uses ADP- glucose

12. UDP-sugars are used in synthesis of other biomolecules UDP-glucose for sucrose synthesis UDP-galactose for lactose synthesis UDP-glucose for vitamin C UDP-glucosamine for peptidoglycan

13. A discussion of carbohydrate biosynthesis must encompass photosynthesis (chapter 20) Photosynthetic organisms assimilate or fix CO 2 via the Calvin cycle This cycle has three stages: –Fixation – making 3-phosphoglycerate –Reduction – generating glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate –Regeneration – making ribulose 1, 5 bisphosphate from triose phosphates

15. Stage I is mediated by Rubisco Rubisco is considered the most abundant protein on Earth (located in chloroplast) Rubisco stands for ribulose 1,5- bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase

16. Rubisco catalyses the addition of CO 2 to RuBP and cleavage to 3-phosphoglycerate

17. Stage II The first step is catalyzed by 3- phosphoglycerate kinase, which converts 3- phosphoglycerate to 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate using ATP This compound is reduced using NADPH by glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase to glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate

18. Stage II (cont) DHAP is formed by triose phosphate isomerase then a portion transported to the cytosol for either glycolytic metabolism or production of starch or sucrose as a storage and transport media

20. Each CO 2 fixed consumes a molecule of RuBP Therefore, RuBP must be regenerated. This is accomplished by a pathway including variable number carbon intermediates reminiscent of non-oxidative branch of PPP Enzymes included in this stage include transaldolase and transketolase

22. Transketolase reactions of the Calvin cycle

23. The result of the Calvin cycle The net result is the conversion of three molecules of CO 2 and one molecule of phosphate into a molecule of triose phosphate. (One molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the net product of this carbon assimilation pathway) This result comes from (uses) 6 NADPH and 9 ATP – supplied by photosynthesis (light)

25. An antiporter exchanges Pi with triose phosphates

27. Regulation of the Calvin cycle (Rubisco)

28. Four essential Calvin cycle enzymes are regulated by light Ribulose 5-phosphate kinase Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase Sedoheptulose 1,7 bisphosphatase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase Regulation mediated by disulfide bond formation and disruption

29. Rubisco is an oxygenase Evolution has made Rubisco somewhat of an inefficient enzyme as it has a difficult time discriminating between O 2 and CO 2 Using oxygen results in a metabolically useless molecule, phosphoglycolate Carbon is salvaged from phosphoglycolate by photorespiration

32. Plants can minimize photorespiration Photorespiration is wasteful Tropical plants employ a more complex pathway for fixing CO 2 This pathway fixes CO 2 on PEP using PEP carboxylase and subsequently donates the CO 2 to Rubisco These are known as C 4 plants, in contrast to C 3 plants which only use the Calvin cycle