1. Distributed Transaction Management

2. Outline Introduction Concurrency Control Protocols  Locking  Timestamping Deadlock Handling Replication

3. Introduction

4. DBMS Transaction Subsystem Transaction manager Scheduler Recovery manager Buffer manager Systems manager Access manager File manager Transaction manager coordinates transactions on behalf of application programs It communicates with the scheduler The scheduler handles concurrency control. Its objective is to maximize concurrency without allowing simultaneous transactions to interfere with one another The recovery manager ensures that the database is restored to the right state before a failure occurred. The buffer manager is responsible for the transfer of data between disk storage and main memory. DB

5. Distributed Transactions Management System Each site has a local transaction manager responsible for:  Maintaining a log for recovery purposes  Participating in coordinating the concurrent execution of the transactions executing at that site. Data Communications Coordinator Local TM recovery concurrency

6. Each site has a transaction coordinator, which is responsible for:  Starting the execution of transactions that originate at the site.  Distributing subtransactions at appropriate sites for execution.  Coordinating the termination of each transaction that originates at the site, which may result in the transaction being committed at all sites or aborted at all sites. Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Distributed Transactions Management System Distribute Subtransactions of T Distribute Subtransactions of T Start T Coordinating transaction

7. Each site has a data communications module that handle inter-site communications TMs at each site do not communicate with each other directly Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Distributed Transactions Management System

8. Transaction System Architecture

9. Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator Local TM Coordinator Local TM S1S1 S2S2 S3S3

10. Coordination of Distributed Transaction Local TM S1S1 S2S2 S3S3 In a DDBMS, the local transaction Manager (TM ) still exists in each local DBMS

11. Coordination of Distributed Transaction Coordinator Local TM Coordinator) Local TM Coordinator Local TM S1S1 S2S2 S3S3 There is also a global transaction manager or transaction coordinator at each site

12. Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator (TC 1 ) Local TM Coordinator Local TM S1S1 S2S2 S3S3 Inter-site communication is handled by Data Communications component at each site

13. Fragmented schema: S 1, S 2, S 21, S 22, S 23, a transaction T that prints out the names of all staff; Subtransactions:  T s3 : at site 3  T s5 : at site 5  T s7 : at site 7 S 1 :  Sno, position,sex, dob, salary,nin (Staff)site5 S 2 :  Sno, fname, lname,address,telno,bno (Staff) S 21 :  bno=‘B3’ (S 2 )site 3 S 22 :  bno=‘B5’ (S 2 )site 5 S 22 :  bno=‘B7’ (S 2 )site 7 S 1 :  Sno, position,sex, dob, salary,nin (Staff)site5 S 2 :  Sno, fname, lname,address,telno,bno (Staff) S 21 :  bno=‘B3’ (S 2 )site 3 S 22 :  bno=‘B5’ (S 2 )site 5 S 22 :  bno=‘B7’ (S 2 )site 7 Procedure: Coordination of Distributed Transaction

14. Coordinator (TC 1 ) T Procedure: Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator Local TM S3S3 S7S7 S5S5 TC3 at site S3 divides the transaction into a number of subtransactions T s3 : at site 3 T s5 : at site 5 T s7 : at site 7

15. Procedure: Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator (TC 1 ) Local TM Coordinator Local TM S3S3 S7S7 S5S5 DM component at site S3 sends the subtransactions to the appropriate sites T s3 : at site 3 T s5 : at site 5 T s7 : at site 7 T

16. Procedure: Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator (TC 1 ) Local TM Coordinator Local TM S3S3 S7S7 S5S5 The Transaction Managers at the affected sites (S5 and S7) process the subtransactions T s3 : at site 3 T s5 : at site 5 T s7 : at site 7

17. Procedure: Coordination of Distributed Transaction Data Communications Data Communications Data Communications Coordinator Local TM Coordinator (TC 3 ) Local TM Coordinator Local TM S3S3 S7S7 S5S5 The results of the subtransactions are communicated back to TC 3 at site 3 via the DM components Result T s3 : at site 3 Result T s5 : at site 5 Result T s7 : at site 7 Result T s5 : at site 5 Result T s7 : at site 7 Result T s5 : at site 5 Result T s7 : at site 7

18. Concurrency Control in Distributed Data Bases

19. Problems in Concurrent Use of DDBMS Lost update Uncommitted dependency Inconsistent analysis Multiple-copy consistency problem

20. Concurrency Control in DDB Modify concurrency control schemes ( locking and timestamping) for use in distributed environment. We assume that each site participates in the execution of a commit protocol to ensure global transaction atomicity. We assume (for now) all replicas of any item are updated.

21. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 4 Site 2 Site 3 Transaction transparency: Failure transparency Example: Given a global transaction that has to update data at two sites, S1 and S2 Subtransaction at S1 completes successfully and COMMIT Subtransaction at S2 is unable to commit and rolls back the changes to ensure local consistency Problem: The distributed database is now in an inconsistent state. We are unable to uncommit the data at site S1 due to the durability of the subtransaction at S1

22. Concurrency Control in DDBMS Approaches : Locking Protocols Single-Lock Manager (2PL) Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) Primary Copy (2PL) Majority Protocol

23. Locking Protocols

24. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB System maintains a single lock manager that resides in a single chosen site, say S i Single-Lock-Manager (2PL) Lock Manager

25. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T1 T2 T3Single-Lock-Manager Transaction Coordinator at site S1 divides the transactions T Transaction Coordinator at site S1 acts as global transaction manager or transaction coordinator

26. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T1 T2 T3Single-Lock-Manager n DM component at site S1 sends the subtransactions to the appropriate sites T

27. All lock and unlock requests are made at site S i When a transaction needs to lock a data item, it sends a lock request to S i and lock manager determines whether the lock can be granted immediately:  If yes, lock manager sends a message to the site which initiated the request.  If no, request is delayed until it can be granted, at which time a message is sent to the initiating site. All lock and unlock requests are made at site S i When a transaction needs to lock a data item, it sends a lock request to S i and lock manager determines whether the lock can be granted immediately:  If yes, lock manager sends a message to the site which initiated the request.  If no, request is delayed until it can be granted, at which time a message is sent to the initiating site. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T1 T2 T3Single-Lock-Manager May I lock X? OK

28. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB If the transaction involves an update of the data item that is replicated, the coordinator must ensure that all copies of the data item are updated copy1 copy2 copy3 The coordinator requests write locks on all copies before updating each copy and releasing the locks The coordinator can elect to use any copy of the item for reads, generally the copy at its site, if one exists The coordinator requests write locks on all copies before updating each copy and releasing the locks The coordinator can elect to use any copy of the item for reads, generally the copy at its site, if one exists Single-Lock-Manager T I want to update x Pls lock all copies locked all copies locked

29. Single-Lock-Manager Approach Advantages of scheme:  Simple implementation  Simple deadlock handling Disadvantages of scheme are:  Bottleneck: lock manager site becomes a bottleneck  Vulnerability: system is vulnerable to lock manager site failure.

30. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB Choose one replica of data item to be the primary copy. T copy1 copy2 copy3  Site containing the replica is called the primary site for that data item.  Other copies are called slave copies  Site containing the replica is called the primary site for that data item.  Other copies are called slave copies Primary Copy (2PL) Primary copy Slave

31. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T copy1 copy2 copy3  Different data items can have different primary sites. Primary Copy (2PL) X Y Z

32. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB When a transaction needs to lock a data item Q (update), it requests a lock at the primary site of Q.  The response to the request is delayed until it can be granted.  Implicitly gets lock on all replicas of the data item. When a transaction needs to lock a data item Q (update), it requests a lock at the primary site of Q.  The response to the request is delayed until it can be granted.  Implicitly gets lock on all replicas of the data item. T copy1 copy2 copy3 Primary Copy (2PL) Primary copy I want to update Q Q

33. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB Once the primary copy has been updated the change can be propagated to the slave copies The propagation should be carried out ASAP to prevent other transactions from reading out-of-date values. Once the primary copy has been updated the change can be propagated to the slave copies The propagation should be carried out ASAP to prevent other transactions from reading out-of-date values. T copy1 copy2 copy3 Primary Copy (2PL) Primary copy Q

34. Primary Copy (2PL) Benefit  Can be used when data is selectively replicated, updates are infrequent and sites do not always need the very latest version of the data Drawback  If the primary site of Q fails, Q is inaccessible even though other sites containing a replica may be accessible.

35. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB lock managers are assigned at each site Lock managers control access to local data items. lock managers are assigned at each site Lock managers control access to local data items. T Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) Primary copy

36. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB When a transaction wishes to lock a data item Q, which is not replicated and resides at site S i, a message is sent to the lock manager at site S i, requesting a lock  If Q is locked in an incompatible mode, the request is delayed until it can be granted.  Once the lock request is granted, the lock manager sends a message back to the initiator indicating that it has granted the lock request. When a transaction wishes to lock a data item Q, which is not replicated and resides at site S i, a message is sent to the lock manager at site S i, requesting a lock  If Q is locked in an incompatible mode, the request is delayed until it can be granted.  Once the lock request is granted, the lock manager sends a message back to the initiator indicating that it has granted the lock request. T Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) I want to update Q Q OK locked

37. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T copy1 copy2 copy3 Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) When a transaction wishes to lock a data item Q, which is replicated, Read-One-Write-All is implemented Any copy can be used for reading a data item When a transaction wishes to lock a data item Q, which is replicated, Read-One-Write-All is implemented Any copy can be used for reading a data item Q Q Q I want to read Q Ok Read-locked

38. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T copy1 copy2 copy3 Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) Q Q Q I want to update Q Ok write-locked All copies must be write- locked before an item can be updated write-locked Ok

39. Distributed Lock Manager (2PL) Advantage:  work is distributed and can be made robust to failures Disadvantage:  deadlock detection is more complicated due to multiple lock managers

40. Majority Protocol (ext 2PL) Local lock manager at each site administers lock and unlock requests for data items stored at that site. When a transaction wishes to lock an unreplicated data item Q residing at site S i, a message is sent to S i ‘s lock manager.  If Q is locked in an incompatible mode, then the request is delayed until it can be granted.  When the lock request can be granted, the lock manager sends a message back to the initiator indicating that the lock request has been granted. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB T I want to update Q Q Ok write-locked

41. Majority Protocol In case of replicated data  If Q is replicated at n sites, then a lock request message must be sent to at least more than half of the n sites in which Q is stored. (n/2 + 1)  The transaction does not operate on Q until it has obtained a lock on a majority of the replicas of Q. (n/2 + 1)  When writing the data item, transaction performs writes on all replicas. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB copy1 copy2 copy3 T Q Q Q I want to update Q OK No

42. Majority Protocol Benefit Can be used even when some sites are unavailable

43. Majority Protocol Drawback  There is a potential for deadlock even with single item  Example : system with four sites and full replication.  T 1 and T 2 wish to lock data item Q in exclusive mode.  T 1 succeeds locking Q in sites S 1 and S 3 while T 2 succeeds locking Q in sites S 2 and S 4  T 1 and T 2 must wait to acquire the third lock, hence a deadlock has occurred

44. Timestamping

45. Timestamping Timestamp based concurrency-control protocols can be used in distributed systems Each transaction must be given a unique timestamp Methods for generating unique timestamps  Centralized scheme –  Distributed scheme

46. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 4 Site 2 Site 3 Centralized Scheme a single site distributes the timestamps using a logical counter or its own clock T1 T2 T3 Central timestamping site TS=1 TS=2 TS=3

47. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 4 Site 2 Site 3 Each site generates a unique local timestamp using either a logical counter or the local clock. T4 T3 T2 TS=1 T1 LC=1 Distributed Scheme Timestamping

48. Global unique timestamp is obtained by concatenating the unique local timestamp with the unique site identifier. The order of concatenation (site identifier in the least significant position) is important: to ensure that timestamps generated in one site are not always greater than those generated in other sites 1 20 1

49. Timestamping Problems occur when sites have a different rate of generating timestamps  A site with a slow clock will assign smaller timestamps  Still logically correct: serializability not affected  But: “disadvantages” the transactions To fix this problem  Define within each site S i a logical clock (LC i ), which generates the unique local timestamp  Require that S i advance its logical clock whenever a request is received from a transaction T i with timestamp and x is greater that the current value of LC i.  In this case, site S i advances its logical clock to the value x + 1.

50. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 4 Site 2 Site 3 T4 T3 T2 TS=4 TS=2 TS=3 TS=5 T1 LC=5 LC=4 LC=2 LC=3 T1a T1b T1a Distributed Scheme Timestamping T1b LC=6 T1a=6 T1b=6

51. Deadlock Handling

52. Consider the following two transactions and history, with item X and transaction T 1 at site 1, and item Y and transaction T 2 at site 2: Deadlock Handling Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 DB x y T1 T2 T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X)

53. Deadlock Handling Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 DB x y T1 T2 T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X) write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y write(Y) write-lock on X write (X) No wfg at Site 1 No wfg at Site 2

54. Deadlock Handling write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y write(Y) write-lock on X write (X) When a transaction T 1 on site S 1 needs a resource on site S 2, it sends a request to site S 2 If the resource is held by transaction T 2 (at site 2) the system inserts an edge T 1  T 2 in the local wfg in site S 2. When a transaction T 1 on site S 1 needs a resource on site S 2, it sends a request to site S 2 If the resource is held by transaction T 2 (at site 2) the system inserts an edge T 1  T 2 in the local wfg in site S 2. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 DB x y T1 T2

55. Deadlock Handling T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X) write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y rrite(Y) write-lock on X write (X) T 1 on site S 1 needs a resource (y) on site S 2, it sends a request to site S 2 Since the resource is held by transaction T 2 the system inserts an edge T 1  T 2 in the local wfg in site S 2. T 1 on site S 1 needs a resource (y) on site S 2, it sends a request to site S 2 Since the resource is held by transaction T 2 the system inserts an edge T 1  T 2 in the local wfg in site S 2. T1 T2

56. Deadlock Handling T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X) write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y rrite(Y) write-lock on X write (X) T 2 on site S 2 needs a resource (x) on site S 1, it sends a request to site S 1 Since the resource is held by transaction T 1 the system inserts an edge T 2  T 1 in the local wfg in site S 1. T 2 on site S 2 needs a resource (x) on site S 1, it sends a request to site S 1 Since the resource is held by transaction T 1 the system inserts an edge T 2  T 1 in the local wfg in site S 1. T2 T1

57. Deadlock Handling T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X) write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y rrite(Y) write-lock on X write (X) T2 T1 T2 Using local WFG at each site, there is no deadlock detected If any local wfg has a cycle, deadlock occurs.

58. Deadlock Handling write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) write-lock on Y rrite(Y) write-lock on X write (X) T2 T1 T2 Even if there are no cycles in local wfgs, a deadlock exists if the union of the local wfgs (global wfg) contains a cycle T1 T2

59. Deadlock Handling T 1 : write (X) write (Y) T 2 : write (Y) write (X) write-lock on X write (X) write-lock on Y write (Y) T1 T2 write-lock on Y rrite(Y) write-lock on X write (X)

60. Local Wait-For Graphs Two sites, each maintaining its local wfg T 2 and T 3 appears in both sites indicating the transactions have requested items at both sites.

61. Local and Global Wait-For Graphs Local Global Deadlock

62. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB A single site is appointed as deadlock detection coordinator (DDC) T Primary copy DDC Deadlock Detection:Centralized Approach (DDC) is responsible for constructing and maintaining the global WFG

63. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB Periodically, each lock manager transmits its local WFG to DDC T Primary copy DDC Deadlock Detection:Centralized Approach DDC builds the global WFG and checks for cycles Are there cycles? Here is my WFG

64. Computer Network DB Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 DB If one or more cycles exist, the DDC breaks each cycle by selecting transactions to be rolled back and restarted. T Primary copy DDC Deadlock Detection:Centralized Approach DDC informs all sites affected by rollbacks and restarts. Oh, there is a cycle… Please rollback and restart

65. Centralized Approach the global wait-for graph can be (re)constructed when:  a new edge is inserted in or removed from one of the local wait-for graphs.  a number of changes have occurred in a local wait-for graph.  the coordinator needs to invoke cycle-detection. If the coordinator finds a cycle, it selects a victim and notifies all sites. The sites roll back the victim transaction.

66. Types of WFG Types of wfg (due to communication delay) Real graph: describes the real, but unknown, state of the system at any instance of time Constructed graph:Approximation generated by the controller during the execution of its algorithm.

67. Example Wait-For Graph for False Cycles Initial state:

68. False Cycles Suppose that starting from the state shown in figure, 1. T 2 releases resources at S 1  resulting in a message remove T 1  T 2 message from the Transaction Manager at site S 1 to the coordinator) 2. And then T 2 requests a resource held by T 3 at site S 2  resulting in a message insert T 2  T 3 from S 2 to the coordinator

69. False Cycles Suppose further that the insert message reaches before the delete message  this can happen due to network delays The coordinator would then find a false cycle after the insert (but before the remove) T 1  T 2  T 3  T 1 The false cycle above never existed in reality.

70. Example Wait-For Graph for False Cycles After insert but before the remove

71. Unnecessary Rollbacks Unnecessary rollbacks may result when deadlock has indeed occurred and a victim has been picked, and meanwhile one of the transactions was aborted for reasons unrelated to the deadlock. Unnecessary rollbacks can result from false cycles in the global wait-for graph; however, likelihood of false cycles is low.

72. Unnecessary Rollbacks Site S 1 decides to abort T 2 At the same time the coordinator has discovered a cycle and has picked T 3 as a victim. Both T 3 and T 2 are now rolled back, although only T 2 needed to be rolled back.

73. Replication with Weak Consistency Many commercial databases support replication of data with weak degrees of consistency (i.e., without a guarantee of serializabiliy) Types of replication:  Master-slave replication  Multimaster replication  Lazy propagation

74. master-slave replication: updates are only performed at a single “master” site, and propagated to “slave” sites. (update conflicts do not occur) Propagation is not part of the update transaction: its is decoupled  May be immediately after transaction commits  May be periodic Data may only be read at slave sites, not updated No need to obtain locks at any remote site Particularly useful for distributing information  E.g. from central office to branch-office Also useful for running read-only queries offline from the main database