1. Miss Hairul Nazirah bt Abdul Halim
ERT 210/4 Process Control
CHAPTER 8
Feedback Controllers
Miss Hairul Nazirah bt Abdul Halim
Office:

2. ExxonMobil Chemical Plant

3. Overview – Function of automatic control
Figure 1 shows a common application of automatic control found in many industrial plants, a heat exchanger which uses steam to heat cold water.
In manual operation, the amount of steam entering the heat exchanger depends on the air pressure to the valve which is set on the manual regulator.

4. To control the temperature manually, the operator would watch the indicated temperature, and by comparing it with the desired temperature, be would open or close the valve to admit more or less steam .
When the temperature had reached the desired value, the operator would simply hold that output to the valve to keep the temperature constant.
Under automatic control, the temperature controller performs the same function. The measurement signal to the controller from the temperature transmitter is continuously compared to the set point signal entered into the controller.
Based on a comparison of the signals, the automatic controller can tell whether the measurement signal is above or below the setpoint and move the valve accordingly until the measurement (temperature) comes to its final value.

5. Feedback Controllers Chapter 8 AT: analyzer transmitter
AC: feedback controller
I/P: current to pressure transducer
Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram for a stirred-tank blending system.

6. Chapter 8 Basic components in a feedback control loop are:
- Process being control (blending system)
- Sensor transmitter combination (AT)
- Feedback controller (AC)
- Current-to-pressure transducer (I/P)
- Final control element (control valve)
- Transmission line between the various instrument (electrical cables and pneumatic tubing)
Chapter 8

7. Chapter 8 Fig. 8.2 shows a simple example of flow control loop.
The flow rate of a process stream is measured and transmitted electronically to a flow controller (FC)
The controller compares the measured value to the set point value and takes appropriate corrective action by sending an output signal to the current-to-pressure (I/P) transducer.
I/P transducer sends a corresponding pneumatic signal to the control valve.
Figure 8.2 Flow control loop
Chapter 8

8. Basic Control Modes Chapter 8 Three basic control modes:
Proportional Control
Integral Control
Derivative Control
Next, we consider Porportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Chapter 8

9. Chapter 8 Proportional Control
In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to zero where
and
Chapter 8

10. Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying, in many process control problems it is kept constant for long periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to the error signal,
Chapter 8
where:

11. Chapter 8

12. The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:
the controller gain (Kc) can be adjusted to make the controller output changes as sensitive as desired to deviations between set point and controlled variable;
the sign of Kc can be chosen to make the controller output increase (or decrease) as the error signal increases.
Chapter 8
For proportional controllers, bias can be adjusted, a procedure referred to as manual reset.
Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a controller gain. The proportional band PB (in %) is defined as
Large PB correspond to a small value of Kc and vice versa

13. In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal proportional controller (without saturation limits), define a deviation variable as
Then Eq. 8-2 can be written as
Chapter 8
The transfer function for proportional-only control:
An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is that a steady-state error (or offset) occurs after a set-point change or a sustained disturbance.

14. Chapter 8 Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the integral of the error signal over time,
where , an adjustable parameter referred to as the integral time or reset time, has units of time.
Chapter 8
Integral control action is widely used because it provides an important practical advantage, the elimination of offset. Consequently, integral control action is normally used in conjunction with proportional control as the proportional-integral (PI) controller:

15. The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in Eq
The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in Eq. 8-8 is given by
Chapter 8
Some commercial controllers are calibrated in terms of (repeats per minute) rather than (minutes, or minutes per repeat).

16. Chapter 8 Proportional-Integral (PI) Control
Response to unit step change in e:
Chapter 8
Figure 8.6. Response of proportional-integral controller to unit step change in e(t).

17. Reset Windup
An inherent disadvantage of integral control action is a phenomenon known as reset windup or integral windup.
Recall that the integral mode causes the controller output to change as long as e(t*) ≠ 0 in Eq. 8-8.
When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes quite large and the controller output eventually saturates (control valve is fully open or completely shut).
Further buildup of the integral term while the controller is saturated is referred to as reset windup or integral windup.
Reset windup is undesirable because the controller is already doing all it can to reduce the error.
Commercial controllers provide antireset windup.
Antireset windup reduce the windup by temporarily halting the integral control action whenever the controller output saturates and resumes when the output is no longer saturates.
Chapter 8

18. Chapter 8 Integral action eliminates steady-state error
(i.e., offset) Why??? e  0  p is changing with
time until e = 0, where p reaches steady state.
Transfer function for PI control
Chapter 8

19. Chapter 8 Derivative Control
The function of derivative control action is to anticipate the future behavior of the error signal by considering its rate of change.
The anticipatory strategy used by the experienced operator can be incorporated in automatic controllers by making the controller output proportional to the rate of change of the error signal or the controlled variable.
Thus, for ideal derivative action,
Chapter 8
where , the derivative time, has units of time.

20. For example, an “ideal” PD controller has the transfer function:
By providing anticipatory control action, the derivative mode tends to stabilize the controlled process.
Derivative control action tends to improve dynamic response of the controlled variable
Unfortunately, the ideal proportional-derivative control algorithm in Eq is physically unrealizable because it cannot be implemented exactly.
Chapter 8

21. For analog controllers (“real” PD controller), the transfer function in (8-11) can be approximated by
Chapter 8
where the constant α typically has a value between 0.05 and 0.2, with 0.1 being a common choice.
In Eq the derivative term includes a derivative mode filter (also called a derivative filter) that reduces the sensitivity of the control calculations to high-frequency noise in the measurement.

22. Chapter 8 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral, and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Parallel Form of PID Control
The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a derivative “Ideal” PID control is given by
Chapter 8
The corresponding transfer function for “Ideal” PID control is:

23. The corresponding transfer function for “Real” PID control (parallel), with derivative filter is:
Chapter 8
Figure 8.8 Block diagram of the parallel form of PID control (without a derivative filter)

24. Chapter 8 Series Form of PID Control
Historically, it was convenient to construct early analog controllers (both electronic and pneumatic) so that a PI element and a PD element operated in series.
Commercial versions of the series-form controller have a derivative “Real PID control” that is applied to either the derivative term, as in Eq. 8-12, or to the PD term, as in Eq. 8-15:
Chapter 8
Figure 8.9 Block diagram of the series form of PID control (without a derivative filter)

25. Chapter 8 Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the expanded form of PID control in Eq is sometimes used:
Chapter 8

26. Chapter 8 Controller Comparison P - Simplest controller to tune (Kc).
- Offset with sustained disturbance or setpoint
change.
PI - More complicated to tune (Kc, I) .
- Better performance than P
- No offset
- Most popular FB controller
Chapter 8
PID - Most complicated to tune (Kc, I, D) .
- Better performance than PI
- No offset
- Derivative action may be affected by noise

27. Features of PID Controllers
Elimination of Derivative and Proportional Kick
One disadvantage of the previous PID controllers is that a sudden change in set point (and hence the error, e) will cause the derivative term momentarily to become very large and thus provide a derivative kick to the final control element.
This sudden change is undesirable and can be avoided by basing the derivative action on the measurement, ym, rather than on the error signal, e.
We illustrate the elimination of derivative kick by considering the parallel form of PID control in Eq
Replacing de/dt by –dym/dt gives
Chapter 8

28. Chapter 8 Reverse or Direct Action
The controller gain can be made either negative or positive.
For proportional control, when Kc > 0, the controller output p(t) increases as its input signal ym(t) decreases, as can be seen by combining Eqs. 8-2 and 8-1:
Chapter 8
This controller is an example of a reverse-acting controller.
When Kc < 0, the controller is said to be direct acting because the controller output increases as the input increases.
Equations 8-2 through 8-16 describe how controllers perform during the automatic mode of operation.
However, in certain situations the plant operator may decide to override the automatic mode and adjust the controller output manually.

29. Figure 8. 11 Reverse and direct-acting proportional controllers
Figure 8.11 Reverse and direct-acting proportional controllers. (a) reverse acting (Kc > 0. (b) direct acting (Kc < 0)
Chapter 8

30. Chapter 8 Automatic and Manual Control Modes Automatic Mode
Controller output, p(t), depends on e(t), controller
constants, and type of controller used.
( PI vs. PID etc.)
Manual Mode
Controller output, p(t), is adjusted manually.
Manual Mode is very useful when unusual
conditions exist:
plant start-up
plant shut-down
emergencies
Chapter 8

31. On-Off Controllers Chapter 8 Simple Cheap
Used in residential heating and domestic refrigerators
Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.
Chapter 8

32. On-Off Controllers (continued)
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
Chapter 8
Controller output has two possible values.

33. Practical case (dead band for error signal) – to reduce sensitivity
to measurement noise.
Chapter 8

34. Chapter 8 Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
the disturbance variable)
No control: the process slowly reaches a new steady state
P – speed up the process response & reduces the offset
PI – eliminate offset & the response more oscillatory
PID – reduces degree of oscillation and the response time
Chapter 8
Figure Typical process responses with feedback control.

35. Chapter 8
Figure Proportional control: effect of controller gain.
Increasing Kc tends to make the process response less sluggish (more faster)
Too large of Kc, results in undesirable degree of oscillation or even become unstable
Intermediate value of Kc usually results in the best control.

36. Chapter 8
Figure PI control: (a) effect of reset time (b) effect of controller gain.
Increasing τI tends to make the process response more sluggish (slower)
Too large of τI, the controlled variable will return to the set point very slowly after a disturbance set-point change occurs.

37. Chapter 8 Figure 8.15. PID control: effect of derivative time.
Increasing τD tends to improve the process response by reducing the maximum deviation, response time and degree of oscillation.
Too large of τD: measurement noise is amplified and process response more oscillatory.
The intermediate value of τD is desirable.