1. From ‘Restrained Tolerance’ to Expulsion

2. Thirteenth-century: Church Reform – Consolidation and development of Gregorian Reforms, < c. 1000, part of ‘the first European revolution’ (R. I. Moore) – Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 – Control, centralization Education/ reform of priesthood (celibacy, latinity) Clarify dogma and religious practice (e.g. confession, eucharist, Mass, ) – Rise of mendicant orders: Franciscans (1209), Dominicans (1215)

3. Two symbols of change The Age of Gothic Cathedrals The Cult of the Virgin

4. ‘Restrained Tolerance’ Alfonso X’s Siete Partidas symptomatic: St Augustine’s teaching – Reminder of Christ’s sacrifice, etc – Conversion through persuasion Remember Monarchy’s vested interest in protecting Jews

5. Signs of change More extreme antijudaic arguments – ‘Christian’ identity and practice subject to greater institutional control – Boundaries of Christianity policed more rigorously Emphasis on Eucharistic devotion (body of Christ) – Faithful tied to priesthood and Church Dogma and heresies being redefined (e.g. Immaculate conception, Virgin birth) – Dominican preaching – Jewish/ Christian polemics

6. Political factors: the late XIVc century Monarchy as protector of Jews (e.g. Alfonso X) Pedro I strengthens absolutist principles and fiscal policies: political backlash – 1370, dies in civil war against half brother Enrique de Trastámara. Anti-Petrine propaganda: Pedro as ‘Jew’ – Enrique distances himself from predecessor and association with Jews – Various aljamas sacked by Castilians and French allies, Jews forced to wear distinctive clothing

7. Under the Trastamaran dynasty: From 1391-1492 1391: anti Jewish preaching in Seville leads pogroms throughout Castille, Aragon, Navarre – Political backlash – Black Death 1340s: 30% mortality Suspicion of Jews poisoning wells Fear of apocalypsis – Political minority of Enrique III (11 years old) Synagogues converted to Churches Women and children sold to Muslim slave traders Mass conversions to Christianity

8. Castilian Conversos 1413-1415: Disputation of Tortosa (Aragón) Pope forbids the study of the Talmud Dominicans preach forced conversion Second wave of converts Conversos: some families maintain prestige, privilege: Royal bureaucracy, fiscal administration, Church hierarchy e.g. Pablo de Santa María: chief rabbi of Burgos, converts 1390 with family Becomes Bishop of Burgos: One son, Alonso de Cartagena succeeds him as Bishop – Alonso’s cultural role as one of leading humanists, scholars, theologians – Typifies good relations between conversos, monarchy and nobility

9. Anti-Converso sentiment Popular urban resentment Royal tax policies – Nobility exempt, Jews pay taxes directly to Crown – Urban resentment Only 15% (72 people) of Crown’s fiscal administration were converts 1449 anti-converso riots (political, fiscal roots) Alonso de Cartagena’s defence of conversos – The superiority of the convert (see Rosenstock) Discourses of race, purity of blood

10. Catholic Monarchs 1479 union of Castile and Aragón Vatican allows them to establish Inquisition under Royal control: to prevent converts from relapsing into Jewish heresy Fray Antonio de Torquemada (descendent of converts) first inquisitor general 1481: first auto de fé: six ‘judaizers’ burned Over next 20 years approximately 30,000 prosecuted, estates confiscated 1492, Expulsion of Jews, 80-150,000. Majority leave for Portugal, 1496 Manuel I issues edict of expulsion (2,000 suspected Jews massacred in Easter 1506). The Diaspora into North Africa, Levant, Italy, Northern Europe

11. Final thoughts Catholic Monarchs protected Jews. Recognised that expulsion against their interests. Political expediency – Popular resentment during economic crisis – Relations with Vatican (economic support for Reconquest and foreign affairs) – Imposition of spiritual unity symbol of national unity (contrast with Alfonso X, ‘King of the Three Religions’)