2. Pathways to adolescent depression: Links between attachment, autonomy, and relatedness The authors can be reached at: F. Christy McFarland Department of Psychology PO Box 400400 University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22904-4400 fcm7a@virginia.edufcm7a@virginia.edu. Penny Marsh 2205 Tolman Hall #1650 Berkeley, CA 94720-1650 pennym@uclink.berkeley.edu We would like to thank the William T. Grant Foundation, Spencer Foundation, and National Institute of Mental Health for funding provided to Joseph Allen, Principal Investigator, for the conduct and write-up of this study.

3. Abstract This study examines interrelations between three aspects of family processes previously demonstrated to relate to adolescent depression: preoccupied attachment strategies, maternal autonomy, and maternal relatedness. Data were collected from a sample of 126 teens and their mothers. Regression analyses revealed that teens who were high in use of preoccupied attachment strategies reported the highest level of depression at any level of autonomous- relatedness. Among preoccupied adolescents, however, increasing maternal autonomy was associated with lower levels of depression, but only when it occurred in the absence of relatedness. These findings demonstrate the benefit of exploring a combination of family factors in understanding adolescent depression.

4. Introduction The nature of the parent-child relationship, and the transformations it undergoes during adolescence, has been the focus of a growing body of research on adolescent depression (Cummings, 1990). The constructs of attachment and current parenting behaviors offer ways to investigate familial and developmental influences on adolescent depression; these concepts are related, but not the same. These processes have mostly been studied in isolation; recent work suggests a need to capture their collective effects (Allen, 2001, Cowan, 1997). This study examines interrelations between three aspects of family processes previously demonstrated to relate to adolescent depression: adolescent preoccupied attachment: excessive sense of involvement in attachment relationships maternal autonomy: confident, reasoned arguments maternal relatedness: interest or positive reaction in the adolescent’s thoughts and feelings

5. PreoccupiedPreoccupied adolescents whose mothers display low levels of autonomy (tentative and hesitant during discussions) have been shown to express higher levels of depression relative to their preoccupied counterparts whose mothers display high levels of autonomy (reasoned and confident arguments). Alack of maternal autonomy may leave an adolescent who is preoccupied with maintaining a close maternal relationship feeling entangled and over-involved in the relationship in ways that exacerbate feelings of depression. ThisThis study proposes that maternal relatedness (e.g. expressed interest in teens’ thoughts and feelings) may dampen the effects of maternal autonomy among preoccupied adolescents. study employs a three way interaction model to explore the relationship between adolescent preoccupation, maternal autonomy and relatedness, and adolescent depression. Introduction (cont.)

6. Method Participants Multi-method, multi-reporter data were collected from a sample of 126 adolescents and their mothers. Adolescents demonstrating at least one academic risk factor (e.g. multiple absences, suspensions, expulsion, and low grades) were recruited through local public schools (mean age 15.9 [sd 0.80], 51.9% male, 38% minority, median family income $25,000).Participants Multi-method, multi-reporter data were collected from a sample of 126 adolescents and their mothers. Adolescents demonstrating at least one academic risk factor (e.g. multiple absences, suspensions, expulsion, and low grades) were recruited through local public schools (mean age 15.9 [sd 0.80], 51.9% male, 38% minority, median family income $25,000). MeasuresMeasures Adolescent AttachmentAdolescent Attachment Adult Attachment Interview (AAI). This semi- structured interview (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1996) probes individuals’ memories about their childhood relationships and experiences with parents. Adult Attachment Q-sort Coding System. Adolescents’ attachment status was determined by Q-sort coding the AAI (George, Kaplan & Main, 1984; Kobak et al., 1993). Interviews were classified for overall states of mind with respect to attachment.

7. This study focused on preoccupied states of mind, which in adolescence is characterized by involved anger, rambling and poorly organized discourse in regards to attachment relationships. MaternalMaternal Autonomy and Relatedness Autonomy and Relatedness Coding System (ARCS). (ARCS). Mothers’ promotion of her autonomy and relatedness was evaluated by applying the previously validated ARCS to ten minute mother- teen discussions in a disagreement task (Allen, Hauser, Bell, Boykin & Tate, 1995). The scale for promotion of autonomy is based upon the use of confident and reasoned arguments during the discussion. The scale for promotion of relatedness is based on statements that indicate genuine interest, or validate what the adolescent is saying. Each occurrence is coded on a scale from zero to four, and scores are combined to provide an overall score. Method (cont.)

8. DepressedDepressed Mood. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). (BDI). Adolescents’ depressed mood was assessed with summary scores on the BDI (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979). The BDI is a 21-item questionnaire assessing depression (Beck & Steer, 1987). Each item is rated on a 4-pt scale (0-3), and the sum is taken. Method (cont.)

9. Figure 1 shows simple correlations between adolescent preoccupation, maternal autonomy, maternal relatedness, and the assessed demographic factors. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed a significant three way interaction effect of preoccupied attachment with mothers’ autonomy and relatedness and adolescent depression within an overall significant model (R 2 =.04, p <.05; Interaction term: F (1,126)=4.09, p <.001) (see Table 1). Specifically, regression analyses revealed that teens who were high in use of preoccupied attachment strategies reported the highest level of depression at any level of autonomous-relatedness (ß=.20, p <.05). Among preoccupied adolescents, however, increasing maternal autonomy was associated with lower levels of depression, but only when it occurred in the absence of relatedness. Results

10. Conversely, among non-preoccupied adolescents, while maternal autonomy slightly increased adolescent depression, this effect was reduced when it occurred in the presence of relatedness. The full three way interaction effect is depicted in Figure 1. Figures 2a and 2b show the interaction of autonomy and relatedness separately for high and low levels of preoccupation. Results

11. Table 1. Correlation of Adolescent Preoccupation and Maternal Autonomy and Relatedness and Indices of Psychosocial Functioning.

12. Table 2. Hierarchical Regressions Predicting Adolescent Self Report Depression  Total R 2  R2 R2 R2 R2 I. Gender (1=M; 2=F) 0.31** Family Income Level 0.08 Minority Status -0.070.1090.109 II. Adolescent Preoccupation 0.20*0.1470.038 III. Maternal Promotion of Autonomy -0.030.1480.001 IV. Maternal Promotion of Relatedness -0.080.1540.006 V. Preoccupation X Maternal Autonomy -0.24** Preoccupation X Maternal Relatedness 0.04 Maternal Autonomy X Maternal Relatedness 0.13*0.227.073 VI. Preoccupation X Autonomy X Relatedness 0.15*0.2630.036

13. Figure 1A: Three Way Interaction Predicting Adolescent Depression. Maternal Autonomy

14. Low Autonomy High Autonomy Low Maternal Relatedness High Maternal Relatedness Figure 2A: Interaction Predicting Adolescent Depression For Highly Preoccupied Adolescents. Figure 2A: Interaction Predicting Adolescent Depression For Low Preoccupied Adolescents. Maternal Autonomy Low Autonomy High Autonomy High Maternal Relatedness Low Maternal Relatedness

15. Conclusions These findings suggest that whether, and how, autonomy and relatedness are associated with depression is dependent upon the adolescent’s frame of mind with respect to attachment experiences. For preoccupied adolescents, maternal autonomy may serve to decrease enmeshment in the mother-adolescent relationship, thereby decreasing depression. For these adolescents, maternal relatedness may heighten enmeshed feelings, thereby dampening the positive effects maternal autonomy has for their affective state. For non- preoccupied adolescents experiencing heightened maternal autonomy may be overwhelming and lead to negative affective states when it occurs in the absence of relatedness. These findings underscore the need to consider the role of attachment in understanding the relationship between autonomy and relatedness and adolescent depression.

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