1. THINK Sociology Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl CHAPTER Second Edition Sociological Research: How Do We Learn About Society? 2 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program

2. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl What are Research Methods? Research methods are the scientific procedures that sociologists use to conduct research and develop knowledge about a particular topic

3. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl In Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sex in Public Places, Laud Humphries concludes that men use tearooms because they’re bisexual or gay, and the social stigma of being openly gay is too great to endure.

4. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Objectivity The first concept sociologist must take into consideration is objectivity –Objectivity is the ability to conduct research without allowing personal biases or prejudices to influence you  One must put ones own preconceptions and personal biases and prejudices aside  You need according to Weber verstehen or to understand the meaning or actions from the actor’s point of view

5. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Variables In sociological research one uses variables –Independent variables are variables that are deliberately manipulated in an experiment –Dependent variables are the response to the manipulated variable –Control variables are variables that are kept constant to accurately test the impact of an independent variable

6. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Cause and Correlation Causal relationship is a relationship in which one condition leads to a certain consequence Causation is the relationship between cause and effect

7. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Cause and Correlation Correlation is an indication that one factor might be the cause for another factor –Positive correlation includes two variables that move in parallel direction –Negative correlation occur when variables move in opposite directions –Spurious correlation occurs when two variables appear to be related but actually have a different cause

8. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Six Steps of Social Research Sociology requires a logical and organized series of steps There are six basic steps of social research or investigation conducted by social scientists

9. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 1 1.Decide on a Topic The first stage of the research model involves determining what you want to study. Sociologists select topics on the basis of importance, personal interest or the availability of research

10. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 2 2.Review the Literature After selection of a topic you will need to perform a literature review which is a study of relevant academic articles an information Literature reviews let you know what other researchers have previously discovered on the topic 10

11. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 3 3.Develop a hypothesis After the literature review one needs to develop a hypothesis which involves a suggestion about how variables relate It should not be confused with a theory which is a comprehensive and systematic explanation of events that lead to testable predictions

12. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Concepts and Operationalizing Variables How should one measure these variables? Social scientists use concepts and operationalizing variables Concepts are abstract ideas that are important to measure Operationalizing means turning abstract ideas into something measurable

13. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 4 4.Collect Data Once you have a hypothesis you need to test it – it is important to have a research design Research design refers to the process used to find information

14. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 4 4.Collect Data It needs to be reliable that means it can be trusted and have validity which assures that you are actually measuring the thing you set out to measure in the first place

15. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Comparative, Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies In collecting data sociologists use a variety of data –Comparative studies use data from different sources in order to evaluate them against each other –Cross-sectional studies look at one event at a single point in time

16. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Comparative, Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies In collecting data sociologists use a variety of data –Longitudinal studies include data from observations over time using a cohort –A cohort is a specific group of people used in a study

17. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl

18. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Survey A survey is an investigation of the opinions or experience of a group of people by asking them questions –Surveys include questionnaires and interview –Surveys are usually targeted at particular populations

19. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl How to Conduct a Survey Surveys are usually conducted in 7 steps: 1.Clarify your purpose 2.Define your population 3.Choose a sample 4.Prepare questions 5.Decide how to collect data 6.Collect data 7.Record, analyze and interpret data

20. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Populations Populations are target groups from which researchers want to get information –Because sociologists usually are limited in resources they must practice parsimony or extreme unwillingness to use resources –20

21. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Samples Because of limited resources sociologists only give surveys to a sample. A sample is a subset of the population –Generalization is the extent that what is learned from a sample can be applied to the population from which the sample is taken –A random sample is a group of subjects arbitrarily chosen from a defined population

22. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Selection Effects and Samples of Convenience Sample of convenience is a non-random sample available to the researcher Selection effects are the likelihood that a non-representative sample may lead to inaccurate results

23. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Experiments Sociologists use experiments to test ideas. In an experiment researchers try to control variables in order to test causes and effects However, some experiments may test peoples’ interactions

24. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Hawthorne Effect Hawthorne effect occurs when people behave differently because they know they are part of an experiment –In the Hawthorne experiment productivity increased when workers knew they were being studied –This was not related to other factors such as changing the lighting

25. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Field Research Field research is research conducted in a natural setting –Participant observation is a type of field research where the researchers poses as a person who is normally in the environment –Case Studies are investigations of one person or event in detail

26. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Field Research Field research is research conducted in a natural setting –Ethnography is a research method that aims to understand the social perspective and cultural values of a particular group by participation with or getting to know their activities in detail

27. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Secondary Data Analysis Sociologists do not always have to collect original data sometimes they access secondary data –Secondary data is data that others have already collected and published –Secondary data analysis is the process of using and analyzing data that others have collected

28. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Research Methods Step 5 5.Analyze Results –Statistical analysis are used to analyze the results, which includes  Central Tendency which is the numbers in the middle of an array of numbers  Mean is an average  Median refers to the midpoint in a distribution of numbers  Mode refers to the most common value in a distribution of numbers

29. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

30. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Evaluating Data Evaluating and interpreting data are important parts of conducting research. It is very important to make sense of the data you collect so others can interpret your results 30

31. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl How to Read a Table Four simple steps in reading tables are 1.Carefully read the title of the table 2.Notice the structure of the table 3.Observe the important subheading of the table 4.Read any text and notes provided below the table

32. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl

33. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Scientific Methods Step 6 6.Share and publish Results –Sharing your results allows others to read and use your findings in their own research –This expands the base of knowledge –Most sociologists adopt the American Sociological Association style

34. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Ethical Concerns Sociologists are concerned with ethical behavior in relation to their subjects –Ethics are a system of values or principles that guide one’s behavior – 5 general principles make up ethical practice in sociology

35. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Ethical Concerns Sociologists are concerned with ethical behavior in relation to their subjects 1.Professional competence 2.Integrity 3.Professional and scientific responsibility 4.Respect for people’s rights, dignity, and diversity 5.Social responsibility 35

36. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl More on Ethics In order to avoid ethical dilemmas it is important to get the consent of your subjects –It is necessary to hand out an informed consent before the study begins. Informed consent means that the research subject understands the general purpose of the study and its main features

37. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl More on Ethics In order to avoid ethical dilemmas it is important to get the consent of your subjects –Subjects must know that they can cease their participation at any time without risk to themselves

38. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Sociologists use a variety of research methods –Quantitative data refers to data based on numbers –Qualitative data includes words, pictures, photos, or any other type of information that come to the researcher in a non-numeric form

39. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Sociologists use a variety of research methods –Content analysis is a type of research in which the sociologist looks for common words or themes in newspapers, books, or structured interviews

40. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Triangulation Triangulation is the process of using multiple approaches to study a phenomenon –If you rely on only one method you might draw an inappropriate conclusion about a social issue because not all the facts are available 40(-3)

41. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Using Triangulation to Examine the Tearoom Trade

42. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Research Methods and the Three Paradigms Although the theoretical paradigm does not affect the research method, it does affect how one interprets the data –Functionalists would examine how an issue functions or has consequences in the society –Social conflict theorists would study how the same phenomenon affect the unequal distribution of goods or rewards in society

43. Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. THINK Sociology, Second Edition John D. Carl Research Methods and the Three Paradigms Although the theoretical paradigm does not affect the research method, it does affect how one interprets the data –Symbolic interactionists might focus more on how the issue affected people on the individual level