1. Can You Breathe in Space? Searching for Molecular Oxygen in the Interstellar Medium Paul F. Goldsmith Senior Research Scientist Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology

2. A Prescient Paper – Mentioning CO, CS, HCN, H 2 O,and NH 3 as “of interest to radio astronomy” 1957 International Astronomical Union Symposium 4, 92 And now the very last sentence: O 2 was measured in Earth’s atmosphere by microwave absorption in 1972 (or before). But what about interstellar space? Why should we care about this molecule in particular?

3. Gas Phase Chemistry for O, H 2 O, O 2 and CO is Relatively Simple All key reaction rates have been measured in laboratory, both at room temperature & at temperatures of dense interstellar clouds Branching ratio measured by ASTRID and CRYRING experiments (Jensen et al. 2000; Neau et al. 2000) f(H 2 O):f(OH) = 0.25:0.75 OH + O −> O 2 is an exothermic neutral- neutral reaction Measurements (Carty et al. (2006) and full quantum calculations (Lique 2010) indicate ~ temp-indep. rate from 300 K to very low temperatures ≅ 4x10 -11 cm 3 s -1

4. Standard Gas-Phase Chemistry Models Also Predict Large Abundance of O 2 The time dependent evolution of a gas phase chemistry model. The physical conditions are n(H 2 ) = 10 4 cm -3, T = 10 K, and A v = 10 mag. The oxygen is initially entirely atomic (K. Willacy).

5. Searching for O 2 in Molecular Clouds Goes Back a Long Time (1979) O 2 could be important coolant O 2 could be a good diagnostic with multiple transitions near 60 GHz SINTOX experiment proposed for Space Shuttle 3.4m dia. antenna & 500 K (DSB) noise temperature at 60 GHz Sigfrid Yngvesson was a postdoc in Townes group, working on K-band masers

6. Ground-Based Search for Molecular Oxygen O 2 in Milky Way cannot be observed from Earth’s surface or airplane, or even from a balloon due to absorption by lines in the atmosphere. This could be considered a good thing! Unlike homonuclear O 2, 16 O 18 O has both even and odd values of rotational angular momentum. But 18 O/ 16 O ~ 1/500 – makes it difficult! The J = 2-1 transition is at ~ 234 GHz Cooled Schottky mixer receiver Newly-installed teflon radome and realigned surface allowed operation at 1.3mm No detections; upper limit was O 2 /CO < 0.5 which is not very constraining Need to go for 16 O 16 O – and for that a space mission is required

7. Search for O 2 with SWAS Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 1 st astronomy Small Explorer Mission (SMEX) Launched Dec 1998 55 x 71 cm offset Cassegrain antenna Two Schottky diode second harmonic mixer receivers; designed by N. Erickson (UC Berkeley PhD with R. Chiao) Four spectral lines targeted: Species Transition Frequency Eu (K) O 2 3 1 – 3 2 487.3 GHz 26 C 0 3 P 1 – 3 P 0 492.1 GHz 24 13 CO 5 – 4 550.9 GHz 79 H 2 O 1 10 – 1 01 556.9 GHz 27

8. X(O 2 ) in IS Clouds from Odin & SWAS is More Than 100X Below that Predicted by Gas-Phase Chemistry Odin  Odin

9. O 2 Results from SWAS No unambiguous detections; one tentative detection in Rho Oph was probably erroneous In 20 clouds, [O 2 ]/[H 2 ] < 10 -6 ; more than 100x below prediction of chemical models Low abundance of O 2 confirmed by Swedish Odin satellite What is going on? The “missing piece” is the interestellar dust grains In early phase of cloud evolution oxygen atoms collide with and stick to dust grains Result is that gas-phase oxygen abundance is reduced Available O bound up as CO and little is left to make O 2

10. Can we Ever Hope to Detect O 2 in Space? Where might we get oxygen off dust grain mantles and back into gas phase where O 2 can be made? Two possibilities – (1)Interstellar shocks can “clean” grains and if shock velocity is modest, you get OH formed in postshock gas which then leads to O 2 (2)Radiation from embedded young stars heats dust grains to > 100 K, at which point the ice desorbs and water returned to gas phase; this is largely converted to O 2 in ~1 million years  Look at postshock gas and at massive, embedded young stars

11. Herschel Space Observator y ESA cornerstone mission with major NASA participation Launched 14 May, 2009 3.5m telescope cooled to~ 80 K 3 instruments including photometers, med.-res. spectrometers and high resolution spectrometer covering 60 μm to 600 μm. 3 prime O 2 lines covered by the HIFI instrument Herschel Oxygen Project (“HOP”) targeted 10 most promising sources Detections only in Rho Oph and Orion

12. First Multi-Line Detection of O 2 : Herschel HIFI Observations of H 2 Peak 1 in Orion 2 μm emission from shocked H 2

13. New Capability: the ALMA array in Chile Huge collecting area High angular resolution Extremely low-noise receivers Very good atmosphere Based on Herschel intensities and modeling suggesting small size, we calculated that 16 O1 8 O would be detectable, submitted a proposal, were awarded time, and observed two ALMA fields (~8hr total) H 2 Pk 1 (Shock Peak) Hot Core (Hot Dust Peak)

14. Conclusions O 2 generally has very low abundance in interstellar molecular clouds, typically 1/10 6 of H 2 The explanation is that oxygen is largely tied up in ice mantles on dust grain surfaces In a few special circumstances, the predictions of gas- phase chemistry DO hold, and O 2 becomes the second or third most abundant molecule in space…. Still more questions to be answered, but after 35+ years we are beginning to get a handle on the perplexing O 2 molecule But don’t hold your breath. Or maybe you should.