1. Chapter 9 MAXIMIZING PROFIT Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e © 2013 Cengage Learning 1

2. Economic Principles © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 2 Entrepreneurial behavior Total revenue, average revenue, and marginal revenue Profit maximization

3. Economic Principles © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 3 Loss minimization The application of the MR = MC rule Corporate empire building

4. Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 4 Profit maximization The primary goal of a firm: To achieve the most profit possible from its production and sale of goods or services.

5. Entrepreneurs and Profit Making © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 5 Entrepreneurs must make production decisions that require some degree of expertise in both the mechanics of production and in accounting.

6. Entrepreneurs and Profit Making © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 6 How do entrepreneurs anticipate what prices will be in the future? Entrepreneurs rely on their best judgment, sometimes on a sixth sense.

7. Profit © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 7 Profit Income earned by entrepreneurs.

8. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 8 EXHIBIT 1AVERAGE TOTAL COST AND MARGINAL COST OF PRODUCING FISH PER FISHING RUN ($ PER FISH)

9. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 9 1.If 11,000 fish are for sale at a price of $0.75, then (using the cost data in Exhibit 1) what is the profit per fish? Profit per fish is ( P – ATC ).

10. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 10 1.If 11,000 fish are for sale at a price of $0.75, then (using the cost data in Exhibit 1) what is the profit per fish? Profit/fish = $(0.75 – 0.68) = $0.07.

11. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 11 2.What is the total profit from selling 11,000 fish? Total profit is ( P – ATC ) × Q.

12. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 12 2.What is the total profit from selling 11,000 fish? Total profit = (0.75 – 0.68) × 11,000 = $770.

13. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 13 3.What happens to profit if price rises to $0.80, and 11,000 fish are to be sold? Total profit at an output level of 11,000 equals (0.80 – 0.68) × 11,000 = $1,320.

14. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 14 4.If price rises to $0.80, are fishers better off to increase catch to 12,000 fish? No. Total profit at an output level of 12,000 equals (0.80 – 0.73) × 12,000 = $840.

15. Exhibit 1: Average Total Cost and Marginal Cost of Producing Fish per Fishing Run © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 15 4.If price rises to $0.80, are fishers better off to increase catch to 12,000 fish? As output increases, average total cost rises from $0.68 to $0.73. Therefore even though output rises, total profit falls.

16. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 16 There are two ways to find the most profitable level of production: Calculate total profit for each and every output level. Calculate whether the last unit produced adds to or subtracts from total profit.

17. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 17 Total revenue ( TR ) The price of a good multiplied by the number of units sold. TR = P × Q

18. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 18 Average revenue ( AR ) Total revenue divided by the quantity of goods or services sold. AR = TR / Q

19. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 19 If TR = $22,600, and Q = 200, what is AR ? AR = ($22,600/200) = $113

20. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 20 Marginal revenue ( MR ) The change in total revenue generated by the sale of one additional unit of goods or services. MR = (change in TR )/(change in Q )

21. The MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 21 If TR rises by $10 when output rises by one unit, what is MR ? MR = $10/1 = $10.

22. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 22 EXHIBIT 2ATOTAL AND MARGINAL REVENUE CURVES DERIVED FROM SELLING FISH WHEN P = $0.90

23. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 23 EXHIBIT 2BTOTAL AND MARGINAL REVENUE CURVES DERIVED FROM SELLING FISH WHEN P = $0.90

24. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 24 EXHIBIT 2CTOTAL AND MARGINAL REVENUE CURVES DERIVED FROM SELLING FISH WHEN P = $0.90

25. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 25 1.Why is marginal revenue equal to price in Exhibit 2? R = P × Q. Since MR = (change in TR ) /(change in Q ), then when Q increases by one unit, TR increases by an amount equal to price.

26. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 26 1.Why is marginal revenue equal to price in Exhibit 2? For example, if quantity increases from 2 to 3, and if price is $0.90, then the change in TR is $(2.70 – 1.80) = $0.90. The change in Q is 1. Therefore, MR = $0.90/1 = $0.90.

27. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 27 1.Why is marginal revenue equal to price in Exhibit 2? As a result, MR = price. The marginal revenue curve is a horizontal line at the prevailing price.

28. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 28 2.Why is the TR curve in panel a an upward-sloping straight line? The TR curve is upward-sloping because as output increases, TR increases, since TR = P × Q.

29. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 29 2.Why is the TR curve in panel a an upward-sloping straight line? The TR curve is a straight line because its slope is equal to price, which does not change.

30. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 30 3.What is the difference between TR and TR′ at an output level of 11,000? TR at a quantity of 11,000 is $9,900.

31. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 31 TR ′ at a quantity of 11,000 is $5,500. 3. What is the difference between TR and TR′ at an output level of 11,000?

32. Exhibit 2: Total and Marginal Revenue Curves Derived from Selling Fish When P = $0.90 © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 32 ( TR - TR′ ) = $4,400 3.What is the difference between TR and TR′ at an output level of 11,000?

33. Applying the MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 33 MR = MC rule The guideline used by a firm to achieve profit maximization.

34. Applying the MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 34 The profit maximization guideline is to keep adding to production as long as the marginal revenue gained from adding production is greater than the marginal cost incurred from adding it. When MR > MC, increase production.

35. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 35 EXHIBIT 3KEY DATA ON PROFIT MAXIMIZATION

36. Exhibit 3: Key Data on Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 36 1. If quantity is 6,000 in Exhibit 3, what should a firm do? Increase quantity Keep quantity the same Reduce quantity

37. Exhibit 3: Key Data on Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 37 1. If quantity is 6,000 in Exhibit 3, what should a firm do? Increase quantity Keep quantity the same Reduce quantity

38. Exhibit 3: Key Data on Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 38 2. If quantity is 14,000 in Exhibit 3, what should a firm do? Increase quantity Keep quantity the same Reduce quantity

39. Exhibit 3: Key Data on Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 39 2.If quantity is 14,000 in Exhibit 3, what should a firm do? Increase quantity Keep quantity the same Reduce quantity

40. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 40 EXHIBIT 4APPLYING THE MR = MC RULE

41. Exhibit 4: Applying the MR = MC Rule © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 41 If quantity is 13,000 in Exhibit 4, is profit maximized? No. Since the MC curve is above MR curve, profit is smaller at 13,000 than if output is set at 10,000.

42. Determining Maximum Profit © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 42 The formula for determining maximum profit is: ( P – ATC ) × Q max Note that Q max is the profit-maximizing output level.

43. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 43 EXHIBIT 5MEASURING PROFIT MAXIMIZATION

44. Exhibit 5: Measuring Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 44 Using the information in Exhibit 5, what is total profit when output is 10,000, price is $0.90, and ATC is $0.645? Profit is $2,550.

45. Exhibit 5: Measuring Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 45 Using the information in Exhibit 5, what is total profit when output is 10,000, price is $0.90, and ATC is $0.645? $2,550 = $(0.90-0.645) × 10,000

46. Exhibit 5: Measuring Profit Maximization © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 46 Using the information in Exhibit 5, what is total profit when output is 10,000, price is $0.90, and ATC is $0.645? Total profit of $2,550 is represented graphically as the area of the shaded rectangle in Exhibit 5.

47. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 47 Loss minimization Faced with the certainty of incurring losses, the firm’s goal is to incur the lowest loss possible from its production and sale of goods and services.

48. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 48 If price is less than ATC, but greater than AVC, the firm is better off to produce where MR = MC in the short run, even though profit is negative.

49. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 49 The reason is that if price is less than ATC, but greater than AVC, all variable costs are being paid with revenue, and there is a bit left over to apply toward fixed cost.

50. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 50 If instead the firm shut down when ATC > P > AVC, then the firm would have no revenue to apply toward fixed cost.

51. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 51 Example: Suppose that price is $0.45, AVC = $0.31, output is 7,000, and TFC = $2,000. Should the firm produce or shut down? If the firm produces, then ignoring TFC, the firm clears $(0.45 - 0.31) × 7,000 = $980.

52. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 52 Example: Suppose that price is $0.45, AVC = $0.31, output is 7,000, and TFC = $2,000. Should the firm produce or shut down? This $980 can be applied to paying off part of the $2,000 TFC.

53. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 53 Example: Suppose that price is $0.45, AVC = $0.31, output is 7,000, and TFC = $2,000. Should the firm produce or shut down? If instead the firm were to shut down, there would be no revenue to apply toward paying the $2,000 fixed cost.

54. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 54 Shutdown The cessation of the firm’s activity. The firm’s loss minimization occurs at zero output.

55. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 55 If price is less than both ATC and AVC, the firm is better off to shut down rather than produce.

56. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 56 If price is less than AVC then total revenue is less than total variable cost. Since the entire total variable cost can be avoided by shutting down, the firm is better off to shut down.

57. Maximizing Profit and Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 57 If instead the firm were to produce rather than shut down when P < AVC, then the loss would be TFC + ( AVC – P ) × Q. The firm is better off to shut down and incur a loss of TFC.

58. © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 58 EXHIBIT 6MINIMIZING LOSS

59. Exhibit 6: Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 59 1.Using the data in Exhibit 6, what output level should the firm produce if price is $0.45? Loss is minimized when the firm produces a quantity of 7,000.

60. Exhibit 6: Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 60 MR = MC at a quantity of 7,000, and the loss is $(0.45 - 0.60) × 7,000 = –$1,050. 1.Using the data in Exhibit 6, what output level should the firm produce if price is $0.45?

61. Exhibit 6: Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 61 2.Using the data in Exhibit 6, what output level should the firm produce if price is $0.26? Loss is minimized when the firm shuts down.

62. Exhibit 6: Minimizing Loss © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 62 While MR = MC at a quantity of 5,000, AVC is $0.28. Total revenue is $1,300, while TVC = $1,400, and so total revenue falls short of TVC by $100. 2.Using the data in Exhibit 6, what output level should the firm produce if price is $0.26?

63. Do Firms Really Behave This Way? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 63 What is the Lester-Machlup controversy? Princeton’s Richard Lester challenged the idea that entrepreneurs look to the margin for production signals.

64. Do Firms Really Behave This Way? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 64 What is the Lester-Machlup controversy? In a survey conducted by Lester, entrepreneurs responded that they did not think in terms of marginal units.

65. Do Firms Really Behave This Way? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 65 What is the Lester-Machlup controversy? Fritz Machlup dismissed Lester’s findings on the grounds that the MR = MC theory of profit maximizing doesn’t depend on what entrepreneurs think they do.

66. Do Firms Really Behave This Way? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 66 Rather, the MR = MC theory relies on what they actually do. What is the Lester-Machlup controversy?

67. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 67 Another challenge to the MR = MC rule is based on the argument that decision makers are not as one- dimensional as marginalists suggest.

68. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 68 For example, stockholders typically want the firm to maximize profit. The firm’s managers, on the other hand, see the firm as more than an economic machine grinding out profit for stockholders.

69. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 69 The firm has social, political, and historical dimensions that are important to the firm’s managers.

70. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 70 The firm that is run by nonowning managers generally chooses to maximize sales, not profit. Success is measured by the size of the production range.

71. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 71 The nonowning manager’s goal is empire building.

72. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 72 In John Kenneth Galbraith’s view, the primary goal of managers is the survival of the corporation and, in particular, the survival of its managerial bureaucracy.

73. Stakeholder © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 73 Stakeholder Someone who has a personal and consequential interest in the viability of the firm.

74. Empire Building © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 74 In Galbraith and Thurow’s view, the preservation of the managerial class, even at the expense of profit, is what managers seek.

75. What Survives of Marginalism? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 75 In the view of many economists, the criticisms of Galbraith and Thurow are interesting and perhaps even useful in explaining some aspects of corporate behavior.

76. What Survives of Marginalism? © 2013 Cengage Learning Gottheil — Principles of Economics, 7e 76 Yet many economists also argue that these criticisms offer insufficient evidence to seriously undermine the basic postulates of the marginalist economists: Firms must be guided by the MR = MC rule to maximize profit.