1. Lecture 12: Unveiling the Milky Way Astronomy 1143 – Spring 2014

2. Key Ideas Mapping our Galaxy and Andromeda Luminosity Distances need Standard Candles Spectroscopic Parallaxes Period-Luminosity Relations for Cepheids & RR Lyraes The Milky Way is our Galaxy Diffuse band of light crossing the sky Most of the stars in the Galaxy lie in a disk Position of Sun in the Galaxy – not the center! Star Counts: Herschels & Kapteyn Globular Cluster Distribution: Shapley

3. Key Ideas Gas and Dust lie between the stars Dust leads to extinction and reddening Not accounting for dust led to confusion about size Nature of Nebulae – important scientific question Objects inside Milky Way or distant galaxies like MW? Problems: “nebulae” includes several different phenomena, inaccurate stellar distances, inaccurate measurements of motion Accurate stellar distances established… We are in the Milky Way, a spiral galaxy Milky Way is one of many galaxies in Universe

4. Luminosity Distances Indirect distance estimate: Measure the object’s Apparent Brightness, B Assume the object’s Luminosity, L Solve for the object’s distance, d, by applying the Inverse Square Law of Brightness

5. Luminosity Assuming a luminosity is a critical step. We need to find something that we can observe about an object that tells us its luminosity For example: We can look at the color of an object We can look at the spectrum of an object We can look at the lightcurve of an object Then we need to calibrate it by knowing the luminosity of an identical object

6. Standard Candles Objects whose Luminosity you know ahead of time. Calibrate the Luminosities of nearby objects for which you have distances from Trigonometric Parallaxes. Identify distant but similar objects, using a distance-independent property that they share. Assume that the distant objects have the same Luminosity as the nearby objects.

7. Examples of Standard Candles Normal Stars Spectral type is the same as a star with a known luminosity – say a star with a known parallax Pulsating Stars Evolved Stars can be unstable Small Changes in Luminosity Period-(Average) Luminosity Relationship

8. All Stars are not like the Sun

9. Stellar Spectra

10. Spectroscopic Parallax Limits Distance Limit: Practical limit is few 100,000 pc – need to get spectra of individual stars Problems: Stars within each class do not have exactly the same luminosity Depends on composition. Faint spectra give poor classifications. Method works best for clusters of stars, rather than for individual stars.

12. Periodic Variable Stars Stars whose brightness varies regularly with a characteristic, periodic pattern. Distance-Independent Property: Period (repetition time) of their cycle of brightness variations. Physics: Period-Luminosity Relations exist for certain classes of periodic variable stars. Measuring the Period gives the Luminosity.

13. Period-Luminosity Relationship 151050 10 2 10 3 10 4 Period (days) Luminosity (L sun )  Cephei Stars RR Lyrae stars 3100300.5

14. Cepheid Variables Rhythmically Pulsating Supergiant stars: Found in young star clusters Luminosities of ~ 10 3  4 L sun Brightness Range: few % to 2  3 times Period Range: 1 day to ~50 days. Period-Luminosity Relation: Longer Period = Higher Luminosity P = 3 days, L ~ 10 3 L sun P = 30 days, L ~ 10 4 L sun

15. Typical Cepheid Light Curves LCB 171 P ~ 3 days LCB 272 P ~ 2 days time Brightness Period Easier to get a measurement of brightness than a spectrum, especially for a lot of objects at once

16. Example: Cepheid with a 10-day period 151050 10 2 10 3 10 4 Period (days) Luminosity (L sun ) 3100300.5 L=5011 L sun P=10 d (observable) Cepheid P-L Relation (calibrated)

17. Example You measure the period of a Cepheid to be 5.4 days. What is its luminosity?

18. Cepheid Variable Limitations Found only in young star clusters. Distance Limit: 30  40 Megaparsecs (Hubble Space Telescope) Crucial for measuring distances to galaxies. Problems: Few Cepheids with good Trigonometric Parallaxes P-L relation may depend on Composition Two types of Cepheids with different P-L relations (  Cephei and W Virginis).

19. Cepheids with HST

20. RR Lyrae Variables Pulsating old stars: Luminosity of ~50 L sun Brightness Range: factor of ~ 2  3 Period Range: Few hours up to ~ 1 day. Relatives of Cepheid Variables Period-Luminosity Relation Less strong than for Cepheids

21. RR Lyrae Light Curve

22. RR Lyrae Star Limitations Found in old clusters, Galactic bulge & halo Distance Limit: ~1 Megaparsec (Hubble) Limited to our Galaxy & Andromeda Problems: No RR Lyrae stars with good Trigonometric Parallaxes Less bright than Cepheid stars, so useful only relatively nearby

23. The Cosmic Distance Scale No single method will provide distances on all cosmic scales: Calibrate parallaxes using the AU Calibrate spectroscopic parallaxes using geometric parallaxes Calibrate Cepheid and RR Lyrae star distances using clusters with spectroscopic or geometric parallaxes Imprecision at each step carries forward, making subsequent steps less precise. This is the challenge of measuring distances.

24. Announcements Don’t forget to sign the attendance sheet Homework #1 thoughts

25. The Milky Way Diffuse band of light crossing the night sky All cultures have named it: Celestial River Celestial Road or Path Our names are derived from Greek and Latin: Greek: Galaxias kuklos = “Milky Band” Latin: Via Lactea = “Road of Milk”

26. View from center of a sphere

27. View from edge of sphere

28. View from center of disk

29. View from edge of disk Star counts and star distances in different directions can tell you the shape of the Milky Way

31. The Herschels’ Star Gauges William & Caroline Herschel (1785): Counted stars along 683 lines of sight using their 48-inch telescope. Assumed all stars are the same luminosity, so relative brightness gives relative distance. Assumed that they could see all the way to the edges of the system. Model: Flattened Milky Way (“grindstone”) Sun is located very near the center

33. The Herschels’ Milky Way Map (1785) Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. v75, 213 (1785)

34. The Kapteyn Universe Jacobus Kapteyn (1901 thru 1922): Used photographic star counts Estimated distances statistically based on parallaxes & proper motions of nearby stars. Neglected interstellar absorption of starlight (assumes fainter stars are just farther away). Model: Flattened disk 15 kpc across & 3 kpc thick The Sun is located slightly off center

35. Kapteyn Milky Way Model (1922) ~17 kpc ~3 kpc 1 kpc = 1 kiloparsec = 1000 pc

37. Harlow Shapley (1915 thru 1921) Astronomer at Harvard Noticed two facts about Globular Clusters: 1.Uniformly distributed above & below the Milky Way on the sky 2.Concentrated on the sky toward Sagittarius Observations: 1.Globular Cluster distances from RR Lyrae stars 2.Used these distances to map the globular cluster distribution in space.

38. Shapley’s Globular Cluster Distribution 302010 2040 10 20 10 20 kpc

39. The Greater Milky Way Shapley’s Results (1921): Globular clusters form a subsystem centered on the Milky Way. The Sun is 16 kpc from the MW center. MW is a flattened disk ~100 kpc across Right basic result, it’s but too big: Shapley ignored interstellar absorption Caused him to overestimate the distances

40. Gas and Dust: the stuff between the stars The space between the stars is not a vacuum. Air on Earth – 2.5 x 10 19 particles/cm 3 Vacuum pump – 10 10 particles/cm 3 Interstellar space – 1 particle/cm 3 Composition similar to solar atmosphere By number: 90% H, 10% He, 0.1% heavy By mass: 72% H, 26% He, 2% heavy Mostly atomic H and He, heavies form dust

41. Dust About 1% of the interstellar medium is in the form of dust Very small particles: think soot, not dust bunnies Composed of carbon, silicon, iron and other heavy elements Dust is very effective at blocking visible light. Makes stars appear fainter, which could fool an observer

42. Dust causes Extinction If there were as much dust in the air of this room as there is in the gas of the Galaxy, it would be difficult to see your notepad in front of you. Therefore the dust in the Galaxy is very important and must be understood to understand Galactic structure.

43. We can see star light from farther away if we look in the infrared

44. The Milky Way A flattened disk of stars with a central bulge Sun is ~8 kpc from the center in Sagittarius ~30 kpc in diameter and ~1 kpc thick Galactic Center and much of the disk is obscured by dust in the plane of the Galaxy 30kpc

45. If we could see the Milky Way galaxy edge-on from outside: = 8000 parsecs = 26,000 light-years =1.7 billion AU

46. Probing the skies The return of Halley’s Comet in 1758 made comets very, very popular All astronomers wanted to discover one, so they used their telescopes to sweep the skies looking for faint, fuzzy objects If it were a comet, it would move from night to night If it didn’t move, it was disappointing. Charles Messier cataloged these objects…

47. Fuzzy Objects in the Sky :

50. The Nature of the Nebulae With telescopes, astronomers found fuzzy things in the sky Called them “nebulae” -- Latin word for cloud Were they galaxies like the Milky Way? Were they clouds of gas inside the Milky Way? Observations with new and better instruments and new techniques gradually revealed several clues to the nature of these objects.

51. Observations of Nebulae During the 19 th century, ever larger telescopes were built. Some nebulae were seen to have a spiral structure Spectra of objects – spiral nebulae had spectra similar to stars Other nebulae, such as planetary nebulae, had very different spectra – different phenomena

52. Observations of Nebulae Bright outbursts observed in spiral nebulae (such as S Andromedae in 1885) Are these similar to the novae (rapid brightening of individual stars) seen in the Milky Way? The spiral nebulae in general have large velocities heading away from us. There were also observations of rotation. Are the spiral nebulae like the Milky Way?

53. Shapley-Curtis Debate Shapley: spiral nebulae are not galaxies like MW Distances large, but not large enough Milky Way is very large; spiral nebulae aren’t far enough away Events like S Andromedae would have to be much more luminous than Milky Way novae Observed rotation cannot be explained if at large distances Curtis: spiral nebulae are galaxies outside MW Milky Way is not so big; spiral nebulae can easily be outside Appearance of nova says spiral nebulae made of stars Large speeds away from us not seen for stars & objects that we know are in the Milky Way Rotation measurements are wrong

54. Rotation and Speeds Your calculation of how far (in kilometers) the spot in the spiral nebula moves depends on how far you think the object is. Angular size + distance = physical size.

55. Hubble Ends the Debate Edwin Hubble (1923): Using the new 100-inch telescope on Mt. Wilson in California. Found a Cepheid Variable in Andromeda Shapley’s P-L relationship gave a distance of 300 kpc By 1925: Hubble had measured 10 Cepheid variables The Distance to Andromeda: ~1000 kpc. Size of the Milky Way: 30 kpc

56. Hubble’s Cepheid in Andromeda 100-inch Telescope (Mt. Wilson)

57. Current Understanding With modern technology and more decades of investigation, we know: Spiral “nebulae” clearly resolved into stars There are extremely luminous stellar explosions in galaxies called supernova. The rotation measurements incorrect The fact that galaxies are moving away from the Milky Way in general is extremely interesting.

58. Andromeda (M31 ) Nearest bright galaxy to the Milky Way: Distance ~700 kpc Many similarities to the Milky Way Both are large spiral galaxies Both have similar stellar and gas contents Andromeda gives us an approximate outside view of our own Galaxy.

59. Galaxies come in many shapes

60. Our Place in the Neighborhood Obtaining accurate distances for many stars and galaxies led to our understanding of The size and shape of the Milky Way and the Sun’s place in it The fact that the Milky Way is one of many galaxies in the Universe The properties of galaxies outside of our own The expansion of the Universe