1. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College C H A P T E R Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Summer 2009 College of San Mateo Instructor: Theresa Martin Human Anatomy

2. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Student Learning Objectives Identify the structures of the body by systems. Relate the structure to the function of anatomic structures. Manipulate cadaver dissections and other lab specimens to understand structural relationships in the body. Learn the aspects of normal functioning in order to relate to clinical issues.

3. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Language of Anatomy Originally from Latin and Greek Word roots have specific meanings Osteo- Cyte-

4. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Principle of Complementarity Anatomy and physiology are inseparable. Every structure has a function What a structure can do depends on its specific form

5. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College C H A P T E R Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 1 The Human Body: An Orientation

6. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Levels of Body Organization Chemicals Cells Tissues Organs Organ Systems Organism

7. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cardiovascular system Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 1.1

8. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. 1 Figure 1.1, step 1

9. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Smooth muscle cell 1 2 Figure 1.1, step 2

10. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue 1 2 3 Figure 1.1, step 3

11. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Blood vessel (organ) Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue 1 2 3 4 Figure 1.1, step 4

12. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cardiovascular system Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue 1 2 3 4 5 Figure 1.1, step 5

13. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cardiovascular system Organelle Molecule Atoms Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. Organismal level The human organism is made up of many organ systems. Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue Blood vessel (organ) Heart Blood vessels Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue 1 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 1.1, step 6

14. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. What are the organ systems of the human body? What organs are in each system? What does each organ system do? Homework

15. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Organ Systems Interrelationships All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs Organ systems work together to perform necessary life functions

16. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 1.2 Digestive system Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide Food O2O2 CO 2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs Interstitial fluid Nutrients Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment Blood Heart Feces Urine CO 2 O2O2

17. PowerPoint ® Lecture Slides prepared by Janice Meeking, Mount Royal College C H A P T E R Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. 3 Cells: The Living Units

18. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell Theory The cell is the smallest unit of life

19. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell Diversity Over 200 different types of human cells Types differ in size, shape, intracellular components, and functions

20. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Fibroblasts Erythrocytes Epithelial cells (d) Cell that fights disease Nerve cell Fat cell Sperm (a) Cells that connect body parts, form linings, or transport gases (c) Cell that stores nutrients (b) Cells that move organs and body parts (e) Cell that gathers information and control body functions (f) Cell of reproduction Skeletal Muscle cell Smooth muscle cells Macrophage Figure 3.1

21. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Generalized Cell All cells have some common structures and functions Human cells have three basic parts: Plasma membrane—flexible outer boundary Cytoplasm—intracellular fluid containing organelles Nucleus—control center

22. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.2 Secretion being released from cell by exocytosis Peroxisome Ribosomes Rough endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Nuclear envelope Chromatin Golgi apparatus Nucleolus Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Cytosol Lysosome Mitochondrion Centrioles Centrosome matrix Cytoskeletal elements Microtubule Intermediate filaments Plasma membrane

23. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Plasma Membrane Bilayer of lipids and proteins in a constantly changing fluid mosaic Separates intracellular fluid (ICF) from extracellular fluid (ECF) Interstitial fluid (IF) = ECF that surrounds cells

24. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.3 Integral proteins Extracellular fluid (watery environment) Cytoplasm (watery environment) Polar head of phospholipid molecule Glycolipid Cholesterol Peripheral proteins Bimolecular lipid layer containing proteins Inward-facing layer of phospholipids Outward- facing layer of phospholipids Carbohydrate of glycocalyx Glycoprotein Filament of cytoskeleton Nonpolar tail of phospholipid molecule

25. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Lipids 75% phospholipids (lipid bilayer) 5% glycolipids 20% cholesterol

26. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.3 Integral proteins Extracellular fluid (watery environment) Cytoplasm (watery environment) Polar head of phospholipid molecule Glycolipid Cholesterol Peripheral proteins Bimolecular lipid layer containing proteins Inward-facing layer of phospholipids Outward- facing layer of phospholipids Carbohydrate of glycocalyx Glycoprotein Filament of cytoskeleton Nonpolar tail of phospholipid molecule

27. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Proteins Integral proteins Firmly inserted into the membrane (most are transmembrane) Functions: Transport proteins (channels and carriers), enzymes, or receptors

28. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Proteins Peripheral proteins Loosely attached to integral proteins Include filaments on intracellular surface and glycoproteins on extracellular surface Functions: Enzymes, motor proteins, cell-to-cell links, provide support on intracellular surface, and form part of glycocalyx Animation: Structural Proteins PLAY Animation: Receptor Proteins PLAY

29. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.3 Integral proteins Extracellular fluid (watery environment) Cytoplasm (watery environment) Polar head of phospholipid molecule Glycolipid Cholesterol Peripheral proteins Bimolecular lipid layer containing proteins Inward-facing layer of phospholipids Outward- facing layer of phospholipids Carbohydrate of glycocalyx Glycoprotein Filament of cytoskeleton Nonpolar tail of phospholipid molecule

30. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Functions of Membrane Proteins 1.Transport 2.Receptors for signal transduction 3.Attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

31. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4a A protein (left) that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. Some transport proteins (right) hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane. (a) Transport

32. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4b A membrane protein exposed to the outside of the cell may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external signal may cause a change in shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell. (b) Receptors for signal transduction Signal Receptor

33. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4c Elements of the cytoskeleton (cell’s internal supports) and the extracellular matrix (fibers and other substances outside the cell) may be anchored to membrane proteins, which help maintain cell shape and fix the location of certain membrane proteins. Others play a role in cell movement or bind adjacent cells together. (c) Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM)

34. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Functions of Membrane Proteins 4.Enzymatic activity 5.Intercellular joining 6.Cell-cell recognition

35. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4d A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane act as a team that catalyzes sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated (left to right) here. (d) Enzymatic activity Enzymes

36. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4e Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may be hooked together in various kinds of intercellular junctions. Some membrane proteins (CAMs) of this group provide temporary binding sites that guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions. CAMs (e) Intercellular joining

37. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.4f Some glycoproteins (proteins bonded to short chains of sugars) serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells. (f) Cell-cell recognition Glycoprotein

38. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Junctions Three types: Tight junction Desmosome Gap junction

39. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.5a Interlocking junctional proteins Intercellular space Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Microvilli Intercellular space Basement membrane (a) Tight junctions: Impermeable junctions prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space.

40. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Junctions: Tight Junctions Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells Where might these be useful in the body?

41. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.5b Intercellular space Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Microvilli Intercellular space Plaque Linker glycoproteins (cadherins) Intermediate filament (keratin) (b) Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions bind adjacent cells together and help form an internal tension-reducing network of fibers. Basement membrane

42. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Junctions: Desmosomes “Rivets” or “spot-welds” that anchor cells together Where might these be useful in the body?

43. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.5c Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Microvilli Intercellular space Intercellular space Channel between cells (connexon) (c) Gap junctions: Communicating junctions allow ions and small mole- cules to pass from one cell to the next for intercellular communication. Basement membrane

44. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Junctions: Gap Junctions Transmembrane proteins form pores that allow small molecules to pass from cell to cell For spread of ions between cardiac or smooth muscle cells

45. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Transport Plasma membranes are selectively permeable Some molecules easily pass through the membrane; others do not

46. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Membrane Transport Passive processes No cellular energy (ATP) required Substance moves down its concentration gradient Active processes Energy (ATP) required Occurs only in living cell membranes

47. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Processes What determines whether or not a substance can passively permeate a membrane? 1.Lipid solubility of substance 2.Channels of appropriate size 3.Carrier proteins PLAY Animation: Membrane Permeability

48. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Processes Simple diffusion Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion Osmosis

49. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Processes: Simple Diffusion Nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer PLAY Animation: Diffusion

50. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.7a Extracellular fluid Lipid- soluble solutes Cytoplasm (a) Simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer

51. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Processes: Facilitated Diffusion Certain hydrophilic molecules (e.g., glucose, amino acids, and ions) use carrier proteins or channel proteins.

52. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Facilitated Diffusion Using Carrier Proteins Transmembrane proteins transport specific polar molecules (e.g., sugars and amino acids) Binding of substrate causes shape change in carrier

53. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.7b Lipid-insoluble solutes (such as sugars or amino acids) (b) Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion via a protein carrier specific for one chemical; binding of substrate causes shape change in transport protein

54. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Facilitated Diffusion Using Channel Proteins Aqueous channels formed by transmembrane proteins selectively transport ions or water Two types: Leakage channels Gated channels

55. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.7c Small lipid- insoluble solutes (c) Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion through a channel protein; mostly ions selected on basis of size and charge

56. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Passive Processes: Osmosis Movement of solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane Water diffuses through plasma membranes: Through the lipid bilayer Through water channels called aquaporins (AQPs)

57. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.7d Water molecules Lipid billayer Aquaporin (d) Osmosis, diffusion of a solvent such as water through a specific channel protein (aquaporin) or through the lipid bilayer

58. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Importance of Osmosis When osmosis occurs, water enters or leaves a cell Change in cell volume disrupts cell function PLAY Animation: Osmosis

59. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Transport: Active Processes Two types of active processes: Active transport Vesicular transport Both use ATP to move solutes across a living plasma membrane

60. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Active Transport Requires carrier proteins (pump) Moves solutes against a concentration gradient Types of active transport: Primary active transport Secondary active transport

61. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Primary Active Transport Energy from hydrolysis of ATP causes shape change in transport protein so that bound solutes (ions) are “pumped” across the membrane

62. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.10 Extracellular fluid K + is released from the pump protein and Na + sites are ready to bind Na + again. The cycle repeats. Binding of Na+ promotes phosphorylation of the protein by ATP. Cytoplasmic Na + binds to pump protein. Na + Na + -K + pump K + released ATP-binding site Na + bound Cytoplasm ATP ADP P K+K+ K + binding triggers release of the phosphate. Pump protein returns to its original conformation. Phosphorylation causes the protein to change shape, expelling Na + to the outside. Extracellular K + binds to pump protein. Na + released K + bound P K+K+ P PiPi 1 2 3 4 5 6

63. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Primary Active Transport Sodium-potassium pump (Na + -K + ATPase) Located in all plasma membranes Involved in primary and secondary active transport of nutrients and ions Maintains electrochemical gradients essential for functions of muscle and nerve tissues

64. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Secondary Active Transport Depends on an ion gradient created by primary active transport Energy stored in ionic gradients is used indirectly to drive transport of other solutes

65. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Secondary Active Transport Cotransport—always transports more than one substance at a time Symport system: Two substances transported in same direction Antiport system: Two substances transported in opposite directions

66. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.11 The ATP-driven Na + -K + pump stores energy by creating a steep concentration gradient for Na + entry into the cell. As Na + diffuses back across the membrane through a membrane cotransporter protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into the cell. (ECF = extracellular fluid) Na + -glucose symport transporter loading glucose from ECF Na + -glucose symport transporter releasing glucose into the cytoplasm Glucose Na + -K + pump Cytoplasm Extracellular fluid 12

67. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Vesicular Transport Transport of large particles, macromolecules, and fluids across plasma membranes Requires cellular energy (e.g., ATP)

68. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Vesicular Transport Functions: Exocytosis—transport out of cell Endocytosis—transport into cell Transcytosis—transport into, across, and then out of cell Substance (vesicular) trafficking—transport from one area or organelle in cell to another

69. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Endocytosis and Transcytosis Involve formation of protein-coated vesicles Often receptor mediated, therefore very selective

70. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13a Phagosome (a) Phagocytosis The cell engulfs a large particle by forming pro- jecting pseudopods (“false feet”) around it and en- closing it within a membrane sac called a phagosome. The phagosome is combined with a lysosome. Undigested contents remain in the vesicle (now called a residual body) or are ejected by exocytosis. Vesicle may or may not be protein- coated but has receptors capable of binding to microorganisms or solid particles.

71. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.13b Vesicle (b) Pinocytosis The cell “gulps” drops of extracellular fluid containing solutes into tiny vesicles. No receptors are used, so the process is nonspecific. Most vesicles are protein-coated.

72. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Exocytosis Examples: Hormone secretion Neurotransmitter release Mucus secretion Ejection of wastes

73. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.14a 1 The membrane- bound vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane. 2 There, proteins at the vesicle surface (v-SNAREs) bind with t-SNAREs (plasma membrane proteins). The process of exocytosis Extracellular fluid Plasma membrane SNARE (t-SNARE) Secretory vesicle Vesicle SNARE (v-SNARE) Molecule to be secreted Cytoplasm Fused v- and t-SNAREs 3 The vesicle and plasma membrane fuse and a pore opens up. 4 Vesicle contents are released to the cell exterior. Fusion pore formed

74. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Summary of Active Processes Also see Table 3.2 ProcessEnergy SourceExample Primary active transportATPPumping of ions across membranes Secondary active transport Ion gradientMovement of polar or charged solutes across membranes ExocytosisATPSecretion of hormones and neurotransmitters PhagocytosisATPWhite blood cell phagocytosis PinocytosisATPAbsorption by intestinal cells Receptor-mediated endocytosis ATPHormone and cholesterol uptake

75. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Membrane Potential Separation of oppositely charged particles (ions) across a membrane creates a membrane potential (potential energy measured as voltage) Resting membrane potential (RMP): Voltage measured in resting state in all cells Ranges from –50 to –100 mV in different cells Results from diffusion and active transport of ions (mainly K + )

76. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 3.15 1 2 3 K + diffuse down their steep concentration gradient (out of the cell) via leakage channels. Loss of K + results in a negative charge on the inner plasma membrane face. K + also move into the cell because they are attracted to the negative charge established on the inner plasma membrane face. A negative membrane potential (–90 mV) is established when the movement of K + out of the cell equals K + movement into the cell. At this point, the concentration gradient promoting K + exit exactly opposes the electrical gradient for K + entry. Potassium leakage channels Protein anion (unable to follow K + through the membrane) Cytoplasm Extracellular fluid

77. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Cell-Environment Interactions Involves glycoproteins and proteins of glycocalyx Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) Membrane receptors

78. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Roles of Cell Adhesion Molecules Anchor cells to extracellular matrix or to each other Assist in movement of cells past one another CAMs of blood vessel lining attract white blood cells to injured or infected areas Stimulate synthesis or degradation of adhesive membrane junctions Transmit intracellular signals to direct cell migration, proliferation, and specialization

79. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Roles of Membrane Receptors Contact signaling—touching and recognition of cells; e.g., in normal development and immunity Chemical signaling—interaction between receptors and ligands (neurotransmitters, hormones and paracrines) to alter activity of cell proteins (e.g., enzymes or chemically gated ion channels) G protein–linked receptors—ligand binding activates a G protein, affecting an ion channel or enzyme or causing the release of an internal second messenger, such as cyclic AMP