1. Topic #7: Intermediate Code EE 456 – Compiling Techniques Prof. Carl Sable Fall 2003

2. Intermediate Code Generation The front end of a compiler translates a source program into an intermediate representation Details of the back end are left to the back end Benefit include: –Retargeting –Machine-independent code optimization

3. Intermediate Languages Consider code: a := b * -c + b * -c A syntax tree graphically depicts code (example at right) Postfix notation is a linearized representation of a syntax tree: a b c uminus * b c uminus * + assign

4. Three-Address Code Three-address code is a sequence of statements of the general form x := y op z x, y, and z are names, constants, or compiler- generated temporaries op can be any operator Three-address code is a linearized representation of a syntax tree Explicit names correspond to interior nodes of the graph

5. Three-Address Code Example t1 := -c t2 := b * t1 t3 := -c t4 := b * t3 t5 := t2 + t4 a := t5

6. Types of Statements Assignment statements of the form x := y op z, where op is a binary operator Assignment statements of the form x := op y where op is a unary operator Copy statements of the form x := y The unconditional jump goto L Conditional jumps such is if x relop y goto L param x and call p, n and return y relating to procedure calls Assignments of the form x := y[i] and x[i] := y Address and pointer assignments of the form x := &y, x := *y, and *x = y

7. Generating Three-Address Code Temporary names are made up for the interior nodes of a syntax tree The synthesized attribute S.code represents the code for the assignment S The nonterminal E has attributes: –E.place is the name that will hold the value of E –E.code is a sequence of three-address statements evaluating E The function newtemp returns a sequence of distinct names The function newlabel returns a sequence of distinct labels

8. Assignments (1) ProductionSemantic Rules S  id := ES.code := E.code || gen(id.place ':=' E.place) E  E 1 + E 2 E.place := newtemp; E.code := E 1.code || E 2.code || gen(E.place ':=' E 1.place '+' E 2.place) E  E 1 * E 2 E.place := newtemp; E.code := E 1.code || E 2.code || gen(E.place ':=' E 1.place '*' E 2.place)

9. Assignments (2) ProductionSemantic Rules E  -E 1 E.place := newtemp; E.code := E 1.code || gen(E.place ':=' 'uminus' E 1.place) E  (E 1 )E.place := E 1.place; E.code := E 1.code E  idE.place := id.place; E.code := ''

10. Example: S  while E do S 1 S.begin := newlabel; S.after := newlabel; S.code := gen(S.begin ':') || E.code || gen('if' E.place '=' '0' 'goto' S.after) || S 1.code || gen('goto' S.begin) gen(S.after ':')

11. Quadruples A quadruple is a record structure with four fields: op, arg1, arg2, and result –The op field contains an internal code for an operator –Statements with unary operators do not use arg2 –Operators like param use neither arg2 nor result –The target label for conditional and unconditional jumps are in result The contents of fields arg1, arg2, and result are typically pointers to symbol table entries –If so, temporaries must be entered into the symbol table as they are created –Obviously, constants need to be handled differently

12. Quadruples Example oparg1arg2result (0)uminusct1 (1)*bt1t2 (2)uminusct3 (3)*bt3t4 (4)+t2t4t5 (5):=t5a

13. Triples Triples refer to a temporary value by the position of the statement that computes it –Statements can be represented by a record with only three fields: op, arg1, and arg2 –Avoids the need to enter temporary names into the symbol table Contents of arg1 and arg2: –Pointer into symbol table (for programmer defined names) –Pointer into triple structure (for temporaries) –Of course, still need to handle constants differently

14. Triples Example oparg1arg2 (0)uminusc (1)*b(0) (2)uminusc (3)*b(2) (4)+t2(3) (5)assigna(4)

15. Declarations (1) A symbol table entry is created for every declared name Information includes name, type, relative address of storage, etc. Relative address consists of an offset: –Offset is from the base of the static data area for globals –Offset is from the field for local data in an activation record for locals to procedures Types are assigned attributes type and width Becomes more complex if we need to deal with nested procedures or records

16. Declarations (2) ProductionSemantic Rules P  M D M  εoffset := 0 D  D ; D D  id : T enter(id.name, T.type, offset); offset := offset + T.width T  integer T.type := integer; T.width := 4 T  real T.type := real T.width := 8 T  array[num] of T 1 T.type := array(num, T 1.type); T.width := num * T 1.width

17. Addressing Array Elements The location of the i th element of array A is: base + (i – low) * w –w is the width of each element –low is the lower bound of the subscript –base is the relative address of A[low] The expression for the location can be rewritten as: i * w + (base – low * w) –The subexpression in parentheses is a constant –That subexpression can be evaluated at compile time More complex for multi-dimensional arrays

18. Translating Assignments (1) ProductionSemantic Rules S  id := E p := lookup(id.name); if p != NULL then emit(p ':=' E.place) else error E  E 1 + E 2 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' E 1.place '+' E 2.place) E  E 1 * E 2 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' E 1.place '*' E 2.place)

19. Translating Assignments (2) ProductionSemantic Rules E  -E 1 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' 'uminus' E 1.place) E  (E 1 )E.place := E 1.place E  id p := lookup(id.name); if p != NULL then E.place := p else error

20. Type Conversions There are multiple types (e.g. integer, real ) for variables and constants –Compiler may need to reject certain mixed- type operations –At times, a compiler needs to general type conversion instructions An attribute E.type holds the type of an expression

21. Semantic Action: E  E 1 + E 2 E.place := newtemp; if E 1.type = integer and E 2.type = integer then begin emit(E.place ':=' E 1.place 'int+' E 2.place); E.type := integer end else if E 1.type = real and E2.type = real then … else if E 1.type = integer and E 2.type = real then begin u := newtemp; emit(u ':=' 'inttoreal' E 1.place); emit(E.place ':=' u 'real+' E 2.place); E.type := real end else if E 1.type = real and E 2.type = integer then … else E.type := type_error;

22. Example: x := y + i * j In this example, x and y have type real i and j have type integer The intermediate code is shown below: t1 := i int* j t3 := inttoreal t1 t2 := y real+ t3 x := t2

23. Boolean Expressions Boolean expressions compute logical values Often used with flow-of-control statements Methods of translating boolean expression: –Numerical methods: True is represented as 1 and false is represented as 0 Nonzero values are considered true and zero values are considered false –Flow-of-control methods: Represent the value of a boolean by the position reached in a program Often not necessary to evaluate entire expression

24. Numerical Representation (1) Expressions evaluated left to right using 1 to denote true and 0 to donate false Example: a or b and not c t1 := not c t2 := b and t1 t3 := a or t2 Another example: a < b 100: if a < b goto 103 101: t : = 0 102: goto 104 103: t : = 1 104: …

25. Numerical Representation (2) ProductionSemantic Rules E  E 1 or E 2 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' E 1.place 'or' E 2.place) E  E 1 and E 2 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' E 1.place 'and' E 2.place) E  not E 1 E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' 'not' E 1.place) E  (E 1 )E.place := E1.place;

26. Numerical Representation (3) ProductionSemantic Rules E  id 1 relop id 2 E.place := newtemp; emit('if' id 1.place relop.op id 2.place 'goto' nextstat+3); emit(E.place ':=' '0'); emit('goto' nextstat+2); emit(E.place ':=' '1'); E  true E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' '1') E  false E.place := newtemp; emit(E.place ':=' '0')

27. Example: a<b or c<d and e<f 100: if a < b goto 103 101: t1 := 0 102: goto 104 103: t1 := 1 104: if c < d goto 107 105: t2 := 0 106: goto 108 107: t2 := 1 108: if e < f goto 111 109: t3 := 0 110: goto 112 111: goto 23 := 1 112: t4 := t2 and t3 113: t5 := t1 or t4

28. Flow-of-Control (1) The function newlabel will return a new symbolic label each time it is called Each boolean expression will have two new attributes: –E.true is the label to which control flows if E is true –E.false is the label to which control flows if E is false Attribute S.next of a statement S : –Inherited attribute whose value is the label attached to the first instruction to be executed after the code for S –Used to avoid jumps to jumps

29. Flow-of-Control (2) ProductionSemantic Rules S  if E then S 1 E.true := newlabel; E.false := S.next; S1.next := S.next; S.code := E.code || gen(E.true ':') || S 1.code

30. Flow-of-Control (3) ProductionSemantic Rules S  if E then S 1 else S 2 E.true := newlabel; E.false := newlabel; S1.next := S.next; S2.next := S.next; S.code := E.code || gen(E.true ':') || S 1.code || gen('goto' S.next) || gen(E.false ':') || S 2.code

31. Flow-of-Control (4) ProductionSemantic Rules S  while E do S 1 S.begin := newlabel; E.true := newlabel; E.false := S.next; S1.next := S.begin; S.code := gen(S.begin ':') || E.code || gen(E.true ':') || S 1.code || gen('goto' S.begin)

32. Boolean Expressions Revisited (1) ProductionSemantic Rules E  E 1 or E 2 E 1.true := E.true; E 1.false := newlabel; E 2.true := E.true; E 2.false := E.false; E.code := E 1.code || gen(E 1.false ':') || E 2.code E  E 1 and E 2 E 1.true := newlabel; E 1.false := E.false; E 2.true := E.true; E 2.false := E.false; E.code := E 1.code || gen(E 1.true ':') || E 2.code

33. Boolean Expressions Revisited (2) ProductionSemantic Rules E  not E 1 E 1.true := E.false; E 1.false := E.true; E.code := E1.code E  (E 1 )E 1.true := E.true; E 1.false := E.false; E.code := E 1.code E  id 1 relop id 2 E.code := gen('if' id.place relop.op id2.place 'goto' E.true) || gen('goto' E.false) E  trueE.code := gen('goto' E.true) E  falseE.code := gen('goto' E.false)

34. Revisited: a<b or c<d and e<f if a < b goto Ltrue goto L1 L1:if c < d goto L2 goto Lfalse L2:if e < f goto Ltrue goto Lfalse

35. Another Example while a < b do if c < d then x := y + z else x := y - z L1:if a < b goto L2 goto Lnext L2:if c < d goto L3 goto L4 L3:t1 := y + z x:= t1 goto L1 L4:t2 := y – z X := t2 goto L1 Lnext:

36. Mixed-Mode Expressions Boolean expressions often have arithmetic subexpressions, e.g. (a + b) < c If false has the value 0 and true has the value 1 –arithmetic expressions can have boolean subexpressions –Example: (a < b) + (b < a) has value 0 if a and b are equal and 1 otherwise Some operators may require both operands to be boolean Other operators may take both types of arguments, including mixed arguments

37. Revisited: E  E 1 + E 2 E.type := arith; if E1.type = arith and E2.type = arith then begin /* normal arithmetic add */ E.place := newtemp; E.code := E 1.code || E 2.code || gen(E.place ':=' E 1.place '+' E 2.place) end else if E1.type := arith and E2.type = bool then begin E2.place := newtemp; E2.true := newlabel; E2.flase := newlabel; E.code := E1.code || E2.code || gen(E2.true ':' E.place ':=' E1.place + 1) || gen('goto' nextstat+1) || gen(E2.false ':' E.place ':=' E1.place) else if …

38. Two-Pass Implementation First, construct syntax tree Walk through syntax tree in depth-first order, computing translations May not know the labels to which control must flow at the time a jump is generated –Affect boolean expressions and flow control statements –Leave targets of jumps temporarily unspecified –Add each such statement to a list of goto statements whose labels will be filled in later –This filling in of labels is called backpatching

39. Backpatching This filling in of labels mentioned on the last slide is called backpatching Can be used to generate the code in a single pass Translations generated are basically the same as before except for labels Book notation – Quadruples are generated into quadruple array Labels are indices into the array

40. Lists of Labels Lists of labels (really statements with jumps to labels) are maintained New functions used to manipulate these lists –makelist(i) Creates a new list containing only i, and index into the array of quadruples Returns a pointer to the new list –merge(p1, p2) Concatenates two lists of labels Returns a pointer to the new list –backpatch(p, i) – inserts i as target label for each statement on the list pointed to by p

41. Boolean Expressions and Markers E  E 1 or M E 2 | E 1 and M E 2 | not E 1 | (E 1 ) | id 1 relop id 2 | true | false M  ε

42. The New Marker Translation scheme suitable for producing quadruples during bottom-up pass –The new marker an has associated semantic action which –Picks up, at appropriate times, the index of the next quadruple to be generated Nonterminal E will have two new synthesized attributes: –E.truelist contains a list of statements that jump when expression is true –E.falselist contains a list of statements that jump when expression is false

43. Example: E  E 1 and M E 2 If E 1 is false: –Then E is also false –So statements on E 1.falselist become part of E.falselist If E 1 is true: –Still need to test E 2 –Target for statements on E 1.truelist must be the beginning of code generated for E 2 –Target is obtained using the marker M

44. New Syntax-Directed Definition (1) ProductionSemantic Rules E  E 1 or M E 2 backpatch(E 1.falselist, M.quad); E.truelist := merge(E 1.truelist, E 2.truelist); E.falselist := E 2.falstlist E  E 1 and M E 2 backpatch(E 1.truelist, M.quad); E.truelist := E 2.truelist; E.falselist := merge(E 1.falselist, E 2.falselist) E  not E 1 E.truelist := E 1.falselist; E.falselist := E 1.truelist E  (E 1 ) E.truelist := E 1.truelist; E.falselist := E 1.falselist

45. New Syntax-Directed Definition (2) ProductionSemantic Rules E  id 1 relop id 2 E.truelist := makelist(nextquad); E.falselist := makelist(nextquad+1); emit('if' id 1.place relop.op id 2.place 'goto _'); emit('goto _') E  true E.truelist := makelist(nextquad); emit('goto _') E  false E.falselist := makelist(nextquad); emit('goto _') M  εM.quad := nextquad

46. Example Revisited (1) Reconsider: a<b or c<d and e<f First, a<b will be reduced, generating: 100: if a < b goto _ 101: goto _ Next, the marker M in E  E 1 or M E 2 will be reduced, and M.quad will be set to 102 Next, c<d will be reduced, generating: 102: if c < d goto _ 103: goto _

47. Example Revisited (2) Next, the marker M in E  E 1 and M E 2 will be reduced, and M.quad will be set to 104 Next, e<f will be reduced, generating: 104: if e < f goto _ 105: goto _ Next, we reduce by E  E 1 and M E 2 –Semantic action calls backpatch({102}, 104) –E 1.truelist contains only 102 –Line 102 now reads: if c <d goto 104

48. Example Revisited (3) Next, we reduce by E  E 1 or M E 2 –Semantic action calls backpatch({101}, 102) –E 1.falselist contains only 101 –Line 101 now reads: goto 102 Statements generated so far: 100: if a < b goto _ 101: goto 102 102: if c < d goto 104 103: goto _ 104: if e < f goto _ 105: goto _ Remaining goto instructions will have their addresses filled in later

49. Annotated Parse Tree

50. Flow-of-Control Revisited (1) S, L, A, and E represent statements, statement lists, assignments, and boolean expressions Clearly, other productions (not shown) are also necessary S  if E then S | if E then S else S | while E do S | begin L end | A L  L ; S | S

51. Flow-of-Control Revisited (2) New attributes and markers will be needed E will still have attributes E.truelist and E.falselist as previously indicated S.nextlist is list of statements that jump to quadruple following statement S L.nextlist is defined similarly New marker N will emit a goto statement and have an associated list as an attribute

52. New Flow-of-Control Rules (1) ProductionSemantic Rules M  εM.quad := nextquad N  ε N.nextlist := makelist(nextquad); emit('goto _') S  if E then M S 1 backpatch(E.truelist, M.quad); S.nextlist := merge(E.falselist, S 1.nextlist) S  if E then M 1 S 1 N else M 2 S 2 backpatch(E.truelist, M 1.quad); backpatch(E.falselist, M 2.quad); S.nextlist := merge(S 1.nextlist, merge(N.nextlist, S 2.nextlist))

53. New Flow-of-Control Rules (2) ProductionSemantic Rules S  while M 1 E do M 2 S 1 backpatch(S 1.next, M 1.quad); backpatch(E.truelist, M 2.quad); S.nextlist := E.falselist; emit('goto', M 1.quad) S  begin L endS.nextlist := L.nextlist S  AS.nextlist := NULL L  L 1 ; M S backpatch(L 1.nextlist, M.quad); L.nextlist := S.nextlist L  SL.nextlist := S.nextlist

54. Labels and Goto Statements The definition of a label is treated as a declaration of the label Labels are typically entered into the symbol table –Entry is created the first time the label is seen –This may be before the definition of the label if it is the target of any forward goto When a compiler encounters a goto statement: –It must ensure that there is exactly one appropriate label in the current scope –If so, it must generate the appropriate code; otherwise, an error should be indicated

55. Procedures The procedure is an extremely important, very commonly used construct Imperative that a compiler generates good calls and returns Much of the support for procedure calls is provided by a run-time support package S  call id ( Elist) Elist  Elist, E Elist  E

56. Calling Sequence Calling sequences can differ for different implementations of the same language Certain actions typically take place: –Space must be allocated for the activation record of the called procedure –The passed arguments must be evaluated and made available to the called procedure –Environment pointers must be established to enable the called procedure to access appropriate data –The state of the calling procedure must be saved –The return address must be stored in a known place –An appropriate jump statement must be generated

57. Return Statements Several actions must also take place when a procedure terminates –If the called procedure is a function, the result must be stored in a known place –The activation record of the calling procedure must be restored –A jump to the calling procedure's return address must be generated No exact division of run-time tasks between the calling and called procedure

58. Pass by Reference The param statements can be used as placeholders for arguments The called procedure is passed a pointer to the first of the param statements Any argument can by obtained by using the proper offset from the base pointer Arguments other than simple names: –First generate three-address statements needed to evaluate these arguments –Follow this by a list of param three-address statements

59. Using a Queue The code to evaluate arguments is emitted first, followed by param statements and then a call If desired, could augment rules to count the number of parameters ProductionSemantic Rules S  call id ( Elist ) for each item p on queue do emit('param' p); emit('call' id.place) Elist  Elist, Epush E.place to queue Elist  Einitialize queue to contain E