1. Probabilistic Analysis and Randomized Algorithm

2. Average-Case Analysis  In practice, many algorithms perform better than their worse case  The average case is analyzed by  Construct a probabilistic model of their input  Determine the probabilities and running times (or costs) of alternate executions  Calculate expected running time (or cost) COT5407

3. Example 1 COT5407

4. Probabilistic Model  Assume A has n distinct numbers. (What is the effect of duplicates?)  Assume each permutation of the numbers is equally likely (How can we guarantee this? through randomization)  How many permutations are there?  What is the probability of the best case?  What is the probability of the worst case? COT5407

5. Example 1: Analysis COT5407

6. Randomized Algorithm  We might not know the distribution of inputs, or we might not be able to model it computationally  Instead we use randomization within the algorithm in order to impose a distribution on the inputs  An algorithm is randomized if its behavior is determined in part by values produced by a random-number generator  How to compute a shuffle? COT5407

7. Goal  Input: Given n items to shuffle (cards, …)  Output: Return some list of exactly those n items; all n! lists should be equally likely.  Not the same as saying “each card is equally likely at each position!” Why not?  Possible methods?  Swap a pair of randomly chosen cards?  Choose keys and sort?  Swap each card with a randomly chosen card?

8. Choose key and sort  Book suggests: Assign each card a key number from [1..K]. Sort keys to permute cards  What is the probability that…  the second card gets the same key as the first? 1/K  the third gets the first or second, assuming that the first and second have different keys? 2/K  That we have some duplicate key among n cards?  1/K + 2/K + … + n/K = n(n+1)/(2K)  Choose K = n^3 and the probability is < 1/n  Expected time: T(n) = O(n lg n) + T(n)/n = O(n lg n).

9. Random Shuffle?  Goal: uniform random permutation of an array.  RANDOM(n) – returns an integer 1  r  n with each of the n values of r being equally likely.  In iteration i, choose A[i] randomly from A[1..?].  A[i] is never altered after iteration i.  Running Time: O(n) Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(?)] Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(?)] n? i? (i-1)?

10. Finding the correct shuffle  (i-1) forces change in each element.  n has n n-1 possible outcomes, but since n! does not divide n n-1, some must occur more frequently than others.  i works … we should prove it. Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(?)] Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(?)]

11. Proving the shuffle correct  Consider the random numbers chosen by a run of the algorithm: RANDOM(n), RANDOM(n-1), …, RANDOM(2), RANDOM(1)  Choices are independent: n·(n-1) ···2·1 = n! choices  We have chosen one uniformly at random.  Claim: Each choice produces to a unique permutation  By running algorithm, choices determine the permutation Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(i)] Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 2 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(i)]

12. Random Shuffle  Goal: uniform random permutation of an array.  RANDOM(n) – returns an integer 1  r  n with each of the n values of r being equally likely.  In iteration i, choose A[i] randomly from A[1..i].  A[i] is never altered after iteration i.  Running Time: O(n) Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 1 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(i)] Shuffle(A) n  length[A] for i  n downto 1 do swap A[i] ↔ A[RANDOM(i)]