1. General Issues in Research Design: Causation & Validity Dr. Guerette

2. Three Elements of Research Causation Causation Units of Analysis Units of Analysis Time Time With a primary aim of explanation, cause in social science research is probabilistic. With a primary aim of explanation, cause in social science research is probabilistic.

3. Causation in Social Science Necessary elements for causality Necessary elements for causality 1. Time order – 1. Time order – the cause must precede the effect in time. the cause must precede the effect in time. 2. Relationship – 2. Relationship – the two variables must be empirically correlated with each other; or must be logically related. the two variables must be empirically correlated with each other; or must be logically related. 3. Explanation of effect – 3. Explanation of effect – the relationship must not be the result of some third variable. the relationship must not be the result of some third variable.

4. Types of Causality Necessary cause – Necessary cause – is a condition that by and large, must be present for the effect to follow. is a condition that by and large, must be present for the effect to follow. Sufficient cause – Sufficient cause – is a condition that more or less guarantees the effect in question. is a condition that more or less guarantees the effect in question.

5. Validity & Causal Inference When we are concerned with whether we are correct in inferring that a cause produced some effect, we are dealing with validity. When we are concerned with whether we are correct in inferring that a cause produced some effect, we are dealing with validity.

6. Types of Validity Statistical conclusion validity – Statistical conclusion validity – deals with our ability to determine whether a change in the suspected cause is statistically associated with a change in the suspected effect. deals with our ability to determine whether a change in the suspected cause is statistically associated with a change in the suspected effect. Internal validity – Internal validity – deals with whether the association between two variables is causal and not the result of the effects of one or more other variables. deals with whether the association between two variables is causal and not the result of the effects of one or more other variables.

7. Types of Validity External validity – External validity – deals with whether research findings from one study can be reproduced in another study often under different conditions. deals with whether research findings from one study can be reproduced in another study often under different conditions. Construct validity – Construct validity – deals with how well an observed relationship between variables represents the underlying causal process of interest. deals with how well an observed relationship between variables represents the underlying causal process of interest.

8. Units of Analysis Individuals – Individuals – for example: inmates, police officers, students, or judges. for example: inmates, police officers, students, or judges. Groups – Groups – for example: police beats, city blocks or cities. for example: police beats, city blocks or cities. Organizations – Organizations – for example, political parties, courts or rehab treatment facilities. for example, political parties, courts or rehab treatment facilities. Social artifacts – Social artifacts – for example, police reports newspaper editorials or TV programs. for example, police reports newspaper editorials or TV programs.

9. Errors dealing with Units of Analysis The Ecological Fallacy – The Ecological Fallacy – the act of making assertions about individuals as the unit of analysis based on examination of groups or other aggregations. the act of making assertions about individuals as the unit of analysis based on examination of groups or other aggregations. Reductionism – Reductionism – refers to an overly strict limitation on the kinds of concepts and variables to be considered as causes in explaining a broad range of human behavior. refers to an overly strict limitation on the kinds of concepts and variables to be considered as causes in explaining a broad range of human behavior.

10. In Class Exercise: Units of analysis Individuals Individuals Groups Groups Organizations Organizations Social artifacts Social artifacts Reports of drunk driving accidents Cities and counties Gangs Probationers Court cases Police agencies Burglars News reports Universities For the following, assign the objects listed with the unit of analysis

11. In Class Exercise: Units of analysis Individuals Individuals Probationers Probationers Burglars Burglars Groups Groups Cities and counties Cities and counties Gangs Gangs Organizations Organizations Police agencies Police agencies Universities Universities Social artifacts Social artifacts Reports of drunk driving accidents Reports of drunk driving accidents Court cases Court cases News reports News reports

12. The Time Dimension Cross-sectional Studies Cross-sectional Studies A technique of using one point in time to gather data and analyze that information carefully. A technique of using one point in time to gather data and analyze that information carefully. Longitudinal Longitudinal A technique designed to permit observations over an extended period of time. A technique designed to permit observations over an extended period of time.

13. The Time Dimension Three types of longitudinal studies Three types of longitudinal studies Trend studies Trend studies Look at changes within some general population over time. Look at changes within some general population over time. Cohort studies Cohort studies Look at a specific population (often an age group or some other time grouping) over time. Look at a specific population (often an age group or some other time grouping) over time. Panel studies Panel studies Similar to trend and cohort studies, except that observations are made on the same set of people on two or more occasions. Similar to trend and cohort studies, except that observations are made on the same set of people on two or more occasions.

14. Approximating Longitudinal Studies Retrospective studies Retrospective studies Ask people to recall their pasts as a means of approximating observations over time. Ask people to recall their pasts as a means of approximating observations over time. Prospective studies Prospective studies Follow people into the future to gauge observations over time. Follow people into the future to gauge observations over time.

15. In Class Exercise: Time in research design Year of Measurement Year of Birth (cohort) 198019902000 1960A-20B-30C-40 1950D-30E-40F-50 1940G-40H-50I-60

16. In Class Exercise: Time in research design 1. Outline (or circle) the cells in the above table which would be representative of a cross- sectional research design and those of a longitudinal design. 1. Outline (or circle) the cells in the above table which would be representative of a cross- sectional research design and those of a longitudinal design. 2. Specify how a panel study, cohort study, and a trend study would differ. 2. Specify how a panel study, cohort study, and a trend study would differ.

17. The Research Process: The Traditional Deductive Model 1. Theory Construction 2. Derivation of theoretical hypotheses 3. Operationalization of Concepts 4. Collection of empirical data 5. Empirical testing of hypothesis

18. Scientific Realism Bridges idiographic and nomothetic approaches to explanation by seeking to understand how causal mechanisms operate in specific contexts. Bridges idiographic and nomothetic approaches to explanation by seeking to understand how causal mechanisms operate in specific contexts. This moves away from the traditional social science research paradigm. This moves away from the traditional social science research paradigm.