1. Thermal properties of materials

2. An Ideal Gas w Is a theoretical gas that obeys the gas laws w And thus fit the ideal gas equation exactly

3. Real Gases w Real gases conform to the gas laws under certain limited conditions w But they condense to liquids and then solidify if the temperature is lowered w Furthermore, there are relatively small forces of attraction between particles of a real gas w This is not the case for an ideal gas

4. The Kinetic Theory of Gases w When the moving particle theory is applied to gases it is generally called the kinetic theory w The kinetic theory relates the macroscopic behaviour of an ideal gas to the microscopic behaviour of its molecules or atoms

5. The Postulates w Gases consist of tiny particles called atoms or molecules w The total number of particles in a sample is very large w The particles are in constant random motion w The range of the intermolecular forces is small compared to the average separation

6. The Postulates continued w The size of the particles is relatively small compared with the distance between them w Collisions of a short duration occur between particles and the walls of the container w Collisions are perfectly elastic

7. The Postulates continued w No forces act between the particles except when they collide w Between collisions the particles move in straight lines w And obey Newton’s Laws of motion

8. Macroscopic Behaviour w The large number of particles ensures that the number of particles moving in all directions is constant at any time

9. Pressure w Pressure can be explained by the collisions with the sides of the container w If the temperature increases, the average KE of the particles increases w The increase in velocity of the particles leads to a greater rate of collisions and hence the pressure of the gas increases as the collisions with the side have increased w Also the change in momentum is greater, therefore greater force

10. Pressure continued w When a force is applied to a piston in a cylinder containing a volume of gas w The particles take up a smaller volume w Smaller area to collide with w And hence collisions are more frequent with the sides leading to an increase in pressure

11. w Also, as the piston is being moved in w It gives the particles colliding with it more velocity w Therefore they have more KE w Therefore the temperature of the gas rises.

12. Collisions w Because the collisions are perfectly elastic w There is no loss of KE as a result of the collisions

13. What happens when volume decreases? When the volume decreases, the molecules have lesser space to move. So in the smaller space, they collide with each other and with the walls of the container more, thus the pressure increases.

14. Phases (States) of Matter w Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space w There are 5 states of matter (as of 1995) w Solids, Liquids, Gases, Plasmas and BEC w Most of the matter on the Earth in the form of the first 3 w The stars in the Universe are in the plasma state w BEC are super-unexcited and super-cold atoms.

15. In 1995, two scientists, Cornell and Weiman, finally created this new state of matter. Two other scientists, Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein, had predicted it in the 1920. They didn't have the equipment and facilities to make it happen in the 20s

16. Macroscopic w Macroscopic properties are all the observable behaviours of that material such as shape, volume, compressibility w The many macroscopic or physical properties of a substance can provide evidence for the nature of that substance

17. Macroscopic Characteristics

18. Microscopic Characteristics

19. Fluids w Liquids w Gases w are both fluids w Because they FLOW

20. Arrangement of Particles - 1 w Solids Closely packed Strongly bonded to neighbours held rigidly in a fixed position the force of attraction between particles gives them PE

21. Arrangement of Particles - 2 w Liquids Still closely packed Bonding is still quite strong Not held rigidly in a fixed position and bonds can break and reform PE of the particles is higher than a solid because the distance between the particles is higher

22. Arrangement of Particles - 3 w Gases Widely spaced Only interact significantly on closest approach or collision Have a much higher PE than liquids because the particles are furthest apart

23. Changes of State w A substance can undergo changes of state or phase changes at different temperatures w Pure substances have definite melting and boiling points which are characteristic of the substance

24. Changes of State - 2 w The moving particle theory can be used to explain the microscopic behaviour of these phase changes When the solid is heated the particles of the solid vibrate at an increasing rate as the temperature is increased The vibrational KE of the particles increases

25. Changes of State -3 At the melting point a temperature is reached at which the particles vibrate with sufficient thermal energy to break from their fixed positions and begin to slip over each other As the solid continues to melt, more and more particles gain sufficient energy to overcome the forces between the particles and over time all the solid particles are changed to a liquid The PE of the system increases as the particles move apart

26. Changes in State - 4 As the heating continues the temperature of the liquid rises due to an increase in the vibrational, rotational and translational energy of the particles At the boiling point a temperature is reached at which the particles gain sufficient energy to overcome the inter-particle forces and escape into the gaseous state. PE increases. Continued heating at the boiling point provides the energy for all the particles to change

27. Heating Curve Solid Liquid Gas Solid - liquid phase change Liquid - gas phase change Temp / o C Time /min

28. Changes of State GASSOLIDLIQUID Freezing/solidification vaporisation condensation melting sublimation Thermal energy given out Thermal energy added

29. During…Molecular Potential Kinetic energy of molecules Melting Freezing Evaporating Boiling Condensation IncreasesRemains the same DecreasesRemains the same Increases Decreases Increases Remains the same DecreasesRemains the same

30. 1) At temperatures lower than its melting point if a solid is heated, its KE increases, PE does not change. 2) Just at the melting point, heat supplied is used to overcome the attractive forces between particles, therefore temperature remains the same. At this point KE does not change, PE increases. At this point both solid and liquid states of the substance are in equilibrium. 3) After melting is completed, the additional heat increases KE of the particles. PE does not change.

31. 4) In the reverse operation, that is, if a liquid at temperatures higher than its freezing point is cooled, KE of the particles decreases, PE does not change. 5) Just at the freezing point, the heat removed from the system is compensated by the energy released due to the formation of bond between solid particles, therefore temperature does not change. As particles get closer their PE decreases, KE does not change. 6) After freezing is completed, the removal of heat decreases KE of the particles. PE does not change.

32. Because w at the point of phase change, inter particle forces have to be broken (or formed), so the heat going into the substance is used to break or form these bonds instead of changing the kinetic energy of the molecules w This is called latent heat.

33. Evaporation w The process of evaporation is a change from the liquid state to the gaseous state which occurs at a temperature below the boiling point w The Moving Particle (Kinetic) theory can be applied to understand the evaporation process

34. Explanation w A substance at a particular temperature has a range of particle energies w So in a liquid at any instant, a small fraction of the particles will have KE considerably greater than the average value

35. So w If these particles are near the surface of the liquid, they will have enough KE to overcome the attractive forces of the neighbouring particles and escape from the liquid as a gas w This energy is needed as gases have more PE than liquids.

36. Cooling w Now that the more energetic particles have escaped w The average KE of the remaining particles in the liquid will be lowered w Since temperature is related to the average KE of the particles w A lower KE infers a lower temperature

37. Cooling w This is why the temperature of the liquid falls as an evaporative cooling takes place w A substance that cools rapidly is said to be a volatile liquid w When overheating occurs in a human on hot days, the body starts to perspire w Evaporation of the perspiration cools the body

38. Factors Affecting The Rate w Evaporation can be increased by Increasing temperature (more particles have a higher KE) Increasing surface area (more particles closer to the surface) Increasing air flow above the surface (gives the particles somewhere to go to)

39. Boiling w temperature at which a substance changes its state from liquid to gas. w A stricter definition of boiling point is the temperature at which the liquid and vapor (gas) phases of a substance can exist in equilibrium. w When heat is applied to a liquid, the temperature of the liquid rises until the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure of the surrounding gases.

40. Boiling w occurs not only at the surface of the liquid, but also throughout the volume of the liquid, where bubbles of gas are formed

41. Specific Heat Capacity w Defined as the amount of thermal energy required to produce unit temperature rise in unit mass of the MATERIAL w Unit mass is normally 1kg, and unit temperature rise is normally 1K w Specific Heat Capacity =  Q / (m  T) w units J kg -1 K -1  Q = the change in thermal energy in joules  T = the change in temperature in Kelvins m is the mass of the material

42. Specific Heat Capacity - 2 w Unit masses of different substances contain different numbers of molecules of different types of different masses w If the same amount of internal energy is added to each unit mass it is distributed amongst the molecules

43. Specific Heat capacity - 3 w The average energy change of each molecule will be different for each substance w Therefore the temperature changes will be different w So the specific heat capacities will be different

44. Heat Capacity/Thermal Capacity w Heat capacity =  Q /  T in JK -1  Q = the change in thermal energy in joules  T = the change in temperature in Kelvin w Defined as the amount of energy needed to change the temperature of a body by 1K. w Applies to a specific BODY w For an object of mass m made of 1 specific material then w Heat Capacity = m x Specific Heat Capacity of the material

45. Q:If material A has a heat capacity of 20 JK -1 and material B has a heat capacity of 80 JK -1 and they are both heated at the same rate, which material do you think will increase its temperature first? Ans: A

46. Heat Capacity - 2 w A body with a high heat capacity will take in thermal energy at a slower rate than a substance with a low heat capacity because it needs more time to absorb a greater quantity of thermal energy for a 1K temp change. w They also cool more slowly because they give out thermal energy at a slower rate

47. Methods of finding the S.H.C w Two methods Direct Indirect

48. Direct Method - Liquids w Using a calorimeter of known Heat Capacity w (or Specific Heat Capacity of the material and the mass of the calorimeter) w Because Heat Capacity = Mass x Specific Heat Capacity

49. SHC of Liquids Thermometer Calorimeter Heating coil Liquid Insulation StirrerTo joulemeter or voltmeter and ammeter

50. Calculations - Liquids w Electrical Energy input is equal to the thermal energy gained by the liquid and the calorimeter – this is the assumption that we are making w Electrical energy = V x I x t w Energy gained by liquid = m l c l  T l w Energy gained by calorimeter = m c c c  T c

51. Calculations - Liquids -2 w Using conservation of energy w Electrical energy in = thermal energy gained by liquid + thermal energy gained by calorimeter w V x I x t = m l c l  T l + m c c c  T c w The only unknown is the specific heat capacity of the liquid

52. Direct Method - Solids w Using a specially prepared block of the material w The block is cylindrical and has 2 holes drilled in it one for the thermometer and one for the heater Heater hole in the centre, so the heat spreads evenly through the block Thermometer hole, ½ way between the heater and the outside of the block, so that it gets the average temperature of the block

53. SHC of Solids Insulation Thermometer Heating coil Solid Insulation To joulemeter or voltmeter and ammeter

54. Calculations - Solids w Again using the conservation of energy w Electrical Energy input is equal to the thermal energy gained by the solid w Electrical energy = V x I x t w Energy gained by solid = m s c s  T s

55. Calculations - Solids -2 w V x I x t = m s c s  T s w The only unknown is the specific heat capacity of the solid

56. Indirect Method w Sometimes called the method of mixtures w In the case of solid, a known mass of solid is heated to a known temperature (usually by immersing in boiling water for a period of time) w Then it is transferred to a known mass of liquid in a calorimeter of known mass

57. Indirect Method cont….. w The change in temperature is recorded and from this the specific heat capacity of the solid can be found w Energy lost by block = Energy gained by liquid and calorimeter w m b c b  T b = m w c w  T w + m c c c  T c the SHC of water and the calorimeter are needed

58. Apparatus Heat Thermometer Beaker Boiling Water Block Thermometer Calorimeter Water Block Insulation

59. Indirect Method – cont…. w In the case of a liquid w A hot solid of known specific heat capacity is transferred to a liquid of unknown specific heat capacity w A similar calculation then occurs

60. Latent Heat w The thermal energy which a particle absorbs in melting, vaporising or sublimation or gives out in freezing, condensing or sublimating is called Latent Heat because it does not produce a change in temperature

61. Latent Heat cont…. w When thermal energy is absorbed/released by a body, the temperature may rise/fall, or it may remain constant If the temperature remains constant then a phase change will occur as the thermal energy must either increase the PE of the particles as they move further apart or decrease the PE of the particles as they move closer together

62. Define specific latent heat. w The quantity of heat energy required to change one kilogram of a substance from one phase to another, without a change in temperature is called the Specific Latent Heat of Transformation w Latent Heat =  Q / m in J kg -1

63. Q = mL Q = heat gained or lost m = mass of substance L = latent heat of transformation w The latent heat of fusion of a substance is less than the latent heat of vaporisation or the latent heat of sublimation

64. Types of Latent Heat Latent heat of FusionSolid – liquid VapourisationLiquid – gas SublimationSolid – gas

65. Questions w When dealing with questions think about where the heat is being given out where the heat is being absorbed

66. w In order to extract the maximum flavor in the shortest amount of time, your local fast food purveyor has decided to brew its coffee at 90 °C and serve it quickly so that it has only cooled down to 85 °C. While this may be economically sensible, it is negligent and dangerous from a health and safety standpoint. Water (which is what coffee mostly is) at 85 °C is hot enough to cause third-degree burns (the worst kind) in two to seven seconds. w You decide to add ice cubes to your coffee to cool it down to a more reasonable 55 °C so you will be able to drink it sooner. (Watery brew be damned. You need your caffeine fix immediately.) How many 23.5 g ice cubes at -18.5 °C should you add to your 355 ml cup of coffee to accomplish your thermal goal?

67. w This is a conservation of energy problem. The heat gained by the ice will be equal to the heat lost by the coffee. w +Qice = -Qcoffee w The ice must first warm up to its melting point (a temperature change), then it has to melt (a phase change), and then the liquid has to warm up (another temperature change). The coffee has less to do. It just has to cool down. w Qcold ice + Qmelting + Qmelted ice = −Qcoffee w [mcΔT] cold ice + [mL] melting + [mcΔT] melted ice = [mcΔT] coffee

68. m ice (2,090 J/kg·C°)(0 + 18.5 °C) + m ice (334,000 J/kg) + m ice (4,200 J/kg·C°)(55 − 0 °C) = (0.355 kg)(4,200 J/kg·C°)(85 − 55 °C) m ice (3603,665 J/kg) = (44,730 J) m ice = 0.0741 kg This is about three ice cubes. number = (74.1 g)/(23.5 g) ≈ 3 ice cubes

69. Methods of finding Latent Heat w Using similar methods as for specific heat capacity w The latent heat of fusion of ice can be found by adding ice to water in a calorimeter

70. Finding latent heat of fusion of ice Block of ice Thermometer Calorimeter Water Block of ice Insulation

71. w The change in temperature is recorded and from this the latent heat of fusion of the ice can be found w Energy gained by block melting = Energy lost by liquid and calorimeter w m b L b = m w c w  T w + m c c c  T c w the SHC of water and the calorimeter are needed

72. Finding Latent Heat of Vaporisation of a liquid Insulation Thermometer Heating coil Liquid in Calorimeter To joulemeter or voltmeter and ammeter

73. w The initial mass of the liquid is recorded w The change in temperature is recorded for heating the liquid to boiling w The liquid is kept boiling w The new mass is recorded w Energy supplied by heater = energy to raise temperature of liquid + energy use to vaporise some of the liquid w (The calorimeter also needs to be taken in to account. w V I t = m l c l  T l + m e L e + m c c c  T c