1. Chapter 6 Learning and Development in Organisations: Intervention or Informality?

2. Objectives To outline current themes in the L & D debate To highlight the practical relevance of organisational learning research by reference to a simplifying typology To review learning options at the level of the organisation, the team and the individual To assess whether intervention or informality is the best approach for managing learning activity

3. Figure 1: Categorising and defining organisational learning research

4. Key Themes Life-long learning Workplace learning Learner responsibility and independence Learning opportunities in teams How to promote organisational learning The national and international context and its influence on L & D practice

5. Definitions Individual learning: ‘a self-directed, work-based process leading to increased adaptive capacity’ Organisational learning: ‘the principal means of achieving the strategic renewal of an enterprise’ (Crossan, Lane & White, 1999) or ‘the processing of information that changes the range of the organization’s potential behaviours…’ (Huber, 1991). Organisational learning involves intervening proactively to manage learning and also recognising naturally occurring learning

6. Intervening Proactively secondments, job rotation, project work appropriate external interventions opportunities for direct interface with groups with whom they do not normally come into contact, e.g. customers, suppliers or competitors educational programmes benchmarking exercises action learning computer-based learning/ blended learning

7. Naturally Occurring Learning Learning happens all the same, and doesn’t necessarily lead to better performance Defensive reactions can prevent effective learning ‘Competency traps’ can prevent organisations from considering new and better possibilities L & D specialists need to harness naturally occurring learning to help the workplace to develop new skills ‘Tacit skills’ are exchanged in an informal learning context HR systems can help create the context that supports effective learning, e.g. recognising those who excel at developing others

8. Team Learning Intervening proactively –Cross training (familiarising each team member with the activities of the rest of the team) –Reflexivity (building in time for teams to review their performance and make plans for the future) –Having learning-oriented goals for team members –Having team members support one another for multi- skilling –Opportunities for interaction with customers –Work shadowing

9. Naturally Occurring Learning –Supportive HR policies and practices to enhance willingness and motivation to share knowledge –Communities of practice – recognising expertise and providing support where needed rather than seeking to control –Mentoring and coaching Supporting leaders Rotating roles across teams

10. Individual Learning: The Formal Agenda Direction-setting for learning –The importance of having clear goals –Using ‘learning-oriented’ goals (especially important for high achievers) –Helping people to develop learning strategies Motivation for learning –Leads to better quality result and higher probability of transfer –Linked with the learner’s expectations about what will result from the learning intervention –Vroom’s V.I.E. framework

11. Individual Learning: The Informal Agenda ‘Learning to learn’ and self-actualisation Support is necessary, especially from – senior management – line management Systems should be in place to guide the learner on how to record his/her learning There should be transparency in ‘next steps’, i.e. progress within the organisation and developmental/ promotion opportunities

12. Conclusion (1) This chapter has examined L & D by focusing on three learning levels – organisational, team and individual L & D specialists and all those with responsibility for learning and development have to make choices; on the one hand, proactively intervening by devising appropriate interventions and, on the other, creating the context within which learning occurs naturally &

13. Conclusion (2) There is no single ideal route that will meet the needs of every organisation; much depends on the external context, including national and international factors, the existing climate for L & D, and the needs and aspirations of the learners Our hope is that this chapter opens new avenues for L & D specialists and highlights current issues, opportunities and challenges in managing L & D in organisations