1. Geologic Time

2.  How Geologists Think about Time  The big word: Uniformitarianism  “Simply” put: If the geologic processes we observe today are representative of those that occurred in the past, then we can make important inferences about the past by observing Earth processes today.  Even more simply put: “the present is the key to the past.”

3.  Catastrophism Landscape developed by catastrophes James Ussher, mid-1600s, concluded Earth was only a few thousand years old Catastrophism (James Ussher, mid 1600s) - He interpreted the Bible to determine that the Earth was created at 4004 B.C. This was generally accepted by both the scientific and religious communities. Subsequent workers then developed the notion of catastrophism, which held that the the Earth’s landforms were formed over very short periods of time.

4. Although catastrophism was abandoned, there is certainly evidence that sudden events do occur.

5.  Modern geology James Hutton Theory of the Earth  Published in the late 1700s Modern geology Uniformitarianism Fundamental principle of geology "The present is the key to the past"

6.  Examples of Uniformitarian Inferences  Sediment movement and deposition rates (now observed at mm/yr)  So 1000 m of sedimentary rock thickness could represent 1 million years of deposition  Uplift rates (mm/yr)  Erosion rates (mm/yr)  Plate speeds (cm/yr)

7.  Relative age dates – placing rocks and events in their proper sequence of formation  Numerical dates – specifying the actual number of years that have passed since an event occurred (known as absolute age dating)

8.  Placing rocks and events in sequence  Relative Age Inferences  Assumptions / Principles: 1. Sediments deposited horizontally 2. Younger sediments on top of older 3. Units that cross-cut (e.g. faults or intrusions) came after (i.e., are younger than) those that they cut 4. Units that include bits of another came later (are younger)

9.  Law of superposition  Developed by Nicolaus Steno in 1669-A Danish anatonist, geologist, & priest  Nicolaus worked on the formation of rock layers and the fossils they contain was crucial to the development of modern geology  In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks (or layered igneous rocks), the oldest rocks are on the bottom

11. Figure 18.3

12.  Principle of original horizontality  Layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position  Rock layers that are flat have not been disturbed  Principle of cross-cutting relationships  Younger features cut across older feature

13. Principle of original horizontality Cont.

15. Figure 18.5 A. B.C. D.

16.  Inclusions  An inclusion is a piece of rock that is enclosed within another rock  Rock containing the inclusion is younger

18. Types of unconformities:  Angular unconformity – tilted rocks are overlain by flat-lying rocks  Disconformity – strata on either side of the unconformity are parallel –Hardest to recognize  Nonconformity – metamorphic or igneous rocks in contact with sedimentary strata Unconformity An unconformity is a break in the rock record produced by erosion and/or non-deposition of rock units *Represent a significant geologic event/gap in evidence

19. Figure 18.8

23. Figure 18.7

26. There are limitations for using stratigraphy to keep time because: Rates of sedimentation are variable e.g. Mississippi can deposit 1m of sediment in 1000 y The deep ocean may deposit 1mm / 1000 years We need to estimate time in another way and be able to recognize when the representation of time via sediments is incomplete, for this geologists utilize absolute dating methods.

27.  Paleontology is the study of ancient life from fossilized remains.  Fossil – the remains or traces of prehistoric life  Types of fossils  The remains of relatively recent organisms – teeth, bones, etc.  Entire animals, flesh include  Given enough time, remains may be petrified (literally “turned into stone”)

28.  Types of fossils  Molds and casts  Carbonization-removal of gas and liquid components (pressure) leaves thin film of carbon  Others  Tracks  Burrows  Coprolites (fossil dung or stomach content)  Gastroliths (polished stomach stones)

29.  Means the fossil record is biased? What conditions are favorable for preservation?

30. Figure 18.12 B

32.  Correlation of rock layers  Matching of rocks of similar ages in different regions is known as correlation  Correlation often relies upon fossils  William Smith (late1700s-early 1800s) noted that sedimentary strata in widely separated areas could be identified and correlated by their distinctive fossil content “There are thousands who have never paid the least regard to that wonderful order and regularity with which nature has disposed of these singular productions, and assigned to each class its peculiar stratum. “ William Smith, notes written January 5, 1796

33.  Correlation of rock layers  Correlation often relies upon fossils  Principle of fossil succession (faunal succession)– fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite and determinable order, and therefore any time period can be recognized by its fossil content  Index fossils  Widespread geographically  Limited to short span of geologic time  Easily identifiable

35. Figure 18.13

38.  Reviewing basic atomic structure  Nucleus  Protons – positively charged particles with mass  Neutrons – neutral particles with mass  Electrons – negatively charged particles that orbit the nucleus

39.  Reviewing basic atomic structure  Atomic number  An element’s identifying number  Equal to the number of protons in the atom’s nucleus  Mass number  Sum of the number of protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus

40.  Reviewing basic atomic structure  Isotope  Variant of the same parent atom  Differs in the number of neutrons  Results in a different mass number than the parent atom

41.  Radioactivity  Spontaneous changes (decay) in the structure of atomic nuclei  Types of radioactive decay  Alpha emission  Emission of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (an alpha particle)  Mass number is reduced by 4 and the atomic number is lowered by 2

42.  Types of radioactive decay  Beta emission  An electron (beta particle) is ejected from the nucleus  Mass number remains unchanged and the atomic number increases by 1

43.  Types of radioactive decay  Electron capture  An electron is captured by the nucleus  The electron combines with a proton to form a neutron  Mass number remains unchanged and the atomic number decreases by 1

44. Figure 18.14

45.  Parent – an unstable radioactive isotope  Daughter product – the isotopes resulting from the decay of a parent  Half-life – the time required for one-half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay

46. Figure 18.16

47.  Radiometric dating  Principle of radioactive dating  The percentage of radioactive atoms that decay during one half-life is always the same (50 percent)  However, the actual number of atoms that decay continually decreases  Comparing the ratio of parent to daughter yields the age of the sample

48.  Radiometric dating  Useful radioactive isotopes for providing radiometric ages  Rubidium-87  Thorium-232  Two isotopes of uranium  Potassium-40

50. Table 18.1

51.  Radiometric dating  Sources of error  A closed system is required  To avoid potential problems, only fresh, unweathered rock samples should be used

52.  Dating with carbon-14 (radiocarbon dating)  Half-life of only 5730 years  Used to date very recent events  Carbon-14 is produced in the upper atmosphere  Useful tool for anthropologists, archeologists, and geologists who study very recent Earth history

53.  Importance of radiometric dating  Radiometric dating is a complex procedure that requires precise measurement  Rocks from several localities have been dated at more than 3 billion years  Confirms the idea that geologic time is immense

54.  The geologic time scale – a “calendar” of Earth history  Subdivides geologic history into units  Originally created using relative dates  Structure of the geologic time scale  Eon – the greatest expanse of time

55.  Structure of the geologic time scale  Names of the eons  Phanerozoic (“visible life”) – the most recent eon, began 542 million years ago  Abundant fossils, great for the documentation of evolutionary trends  Proterozoic  Archean  Hadean – the oldest eon

56.  Structure of the geologic time scale  Era – subdivision of an eon  Eras of the Phanerozoic eon  Cenozoic (“recent life”)  Mesozoic (“middle life”)  Paleozoic (“ancient life”)  Eras are subdivided into periods  Periods are subdivided into epochs  Subdivided into Late-Middle-Early

57. Table 18.2

58.  Precambrian time  Nearly 4 billion years prior to the Cambrian period  Not divided into smaller time units because the events of Precambrian history are not know in great enough detail  First abundant fossil evidence does not appear until the beginning of the Cambrian

59.  Difficulties in dating the geologic time scale  Not all rocks can be dated by radiometric methods  Grains comprising detrital sedimentary rocks are not the same age as the rock in which they formed  The age of a particular mineral in a metamorphic rock may not necessarily represent the time when the rock formed

60.  Difficulties in dating the geologic time scale  Datable materials (such as volcanic ash beds and igneous intrusions) are often used to bracket various episodes in Earth history and arrive at ages