1. Dust and Molecules in Early Galaxies: Prediction and Strategy for Observations Tsutomu T. TAKEUCHI Laboratoire d’Astrophysique de Marseille, FRANCE Part I General Introduction Part II Dust Emission from Forming Galaxies Part III IR Absorption Line Measurement of H 2 in Early Galaxies Summary Contents

2. Part I General Introduction

3. Heavy element production Star formation Dust formation UV FIR Dust Short wavelength photons are scattered and absorbed by dust grains and re-emitted as FIR radiation. Dust and Molecules in Early Galaxy Evolution 1. Absorption and Re-Emission of Radiation by Dust

4. Dust works as a catalyst for the formation of molecular hydrogen (H 2 ). Molecular formation is closely related to the star formation activity. Especially in an early phase of galaxy evolution, H 2 molecules are very important coolant of gas to contract to form stars. Dust controls the early stage of star formation history in galaxies! (Hirashita et al. 2002; Hirashita & Ferrara 2002). Without dust, star formation does not proceed effectively. 2. Dust as a Catalyst of H 2 Formation

5. Motivation For understanding the physics of galaxy formation and early evolution, and testing various models, it is crucial to measure their physical quantities related to the metal enrichment, dust production, and molecular gas amount. 1. Young systems with active dust production We focus on the two systems: 2. Dense systems with little metal/dust Observation of the continuum radiation from dust. Measurement of H 2 through IR absorption lines.

6. Part II Dust Emission from Forming Galaxies

7. Dust Emission Model of Forming Galaxies 1. Model for dust production and radiation 1.1 Dust supply in young galaxies Dust formation in low-mass evolved stars (RGBs, AGBs, and SNe Ia) is negligible in a galaxy we consider here, because of the short timescale (age < 10 8 yr). Dust destruction can also be negligible by the same reason. We can safely assume that only SNe II contribute to the dust supply in young, forming galaxies. We solve the star formation, evolution of the strength of UV radiation field, metal enrichment, and dust production in a self-consistent manner.

8. 1.2 Basic framework of our dust emission model 1.Dust supply: Nozawa et al. (2003) 2.Star formation history: one-zone closed-box model with the Salpeter IMF (0.1 < M < 100 M sun ). 3.Supernova rate: calculated from star formation rate Galaxy formation and evolution Physics of dust grains 1.Optical properties of grains: Mie theory 2.Specific heat of grains: multidimensional Debye model 3.Radiative processes, especially stochastic heating of small grains are properly considered and included

9. A little more about Nozawa et al. (2003) Nozawa et al. (2003) proposed a theoretical model of dust formation by SNe II whose progenitors are initially metal-free. Two extreme scenarios are considered for the internal structure of the helium core of the SN progenitor.  Unmixed case: the original onion-like structure of the elements is preserved.  Mixed case: all the elements are uniformly mixed in the He core. We show the results for both cases in the following.

10. Based on the SFR and dust size spectrum, the total SED is constructed by a superposition of the radiation from each grain species. Construction of the SED  Spherical SF region with radius r SF surrounded by dust  Radiation field strength is calculated from L OB and r SF  L OB evolves according to the SF history. Considering the self-absorption by dust, the final SED is obtained as

11. 2. Results Infrared SED (r SF =30pc, SFR=1.0M sun yr -1 )

12. Infrared SED (r SF =100pc, SFR=1.0M sun yr -1 )

13. The extinction curve of forming galaxies Age t = 10 7 yr. We will use these extinction curves also in Part III.

14. Blue compact dwarf (BCD) Distance : 54 Mpc Very metal-poor : Z ~ 1/41 Z sun Very active star formation: SFR = 1.7 M sun yr -1 (Hunt et al. 2001) Very young stellar population: < 5 Myr (Vanzi et al. 2000) Very hot dust: T dust > 80 K Very strong extinction: A V = 12-30 mag 3. Observational Implications 3.1 A Local ‘Young Galaxy’ SBS 0335-052

15. Comparison of the models with the observed SED The observed dust SED is roughly reproduced by the model of unmixed case.

16. If gas collapses on the free-fall timescale with a SF efficiency  SF (we assume  SF =0.1), SFR of a galaxy is basically evaluated as follows (Hirashita & Hunt 2004): Typical physical parameters for high-z small galaxies 3.2 Quest for Forming Dusty Galaxies If we consider a small clump with gas mass of 10 8 M sun and adopt r SF = 30pc and 100pc, we have a typical SFR of 10 M sun yr -1. We use these values for the estimation of dust emission from a genuine young galaxy.

17. Expected flux for a forming subgalactic clump at high-z Herschel confusion limits by Lagache et al. (2003). ALMA detection limits (64 antennas, 8 hours).

18. Natural huge telescope: gravitational lensing If we consider a strong gravitational lensing by a cluster at z lens =0.1–0.2 with dynamical mass of 5×10 14 M sun, it becomes feasible to detect such galaxies (magnification factor ~ 30–40). We can expect 1–5 events for each cluster at these redshifts.

19. Expected flux for a forming subgalactic clump at high-z II

20. Part III IR Absorption Line Measurement of H 2 in the Early Galaxies

21. H 2 molecules: the predominant constituent of dense gas. IR Absorption Line Measurement of H 2 in the Early Galaxies 1. Basic Idea Local Universe Molecules containing heavy elements (e.g., CO, etc) are good tracers of the amount of H 2. High-z systems in their first star formation They are very metal-poor, and we need a special technique for measuring the amount H 2 directly..

22. Petitjean et al. (2000) and subsequent studies showed a direct measurement of H 2 in UV absorption lines. Their target is damped Lyman-  absorbers (DLAs). Transition probability A of ionizing/dissociation lines is so large that they are useful for detecting thin layers and small amounts of the molecular gas, but not useful for detecting dense gas clouds, as those of our interest. Then, H 2 has well-known vibrational and rotational transitions in the IR. Their transition probabilities are very small because the H 2 is a diatomic molecule of two identical nuclei, and has no allowed dipole transitions. The vib-rotaional and rotational line emission of H 2 are useful for analyzing dense (n > 10 cm -3 ) and hot (T > 300 K) gas.

23. Unfortunately, direct measurement of the H 2 emission lines is very difficult for distant galaxies (Ciardi & Ferrara 2001). If, however, there is a strong IR continuum source behind or in the molecular gas cloud, absorption measurements of these transition lines can be possible (Shibai, Takeuchi, Rengarajan, & Hirashita 2001, PASJ, 53, 589)! Such observation will be feasible by the advent of the proposed space missions for large IR telescope, like SPICA, etc.

24. SPICA: One of the Observational Possibilities SPICA (Space Infrared Telescope for Cosmology and Astrophysics) is the next-generation IR mission, which is to be launched by the Japanese HIIA rocket into the L2 point. This mission is optimized for M- and FIR astronomy with a large (3.5 m), cooled (4.5 K) telescope. The target year of launch is 2010. http://www.ir.isas.jaxa.jp/SPICA/index.html

25. 2. Calculation Assume a uniform cool gas cloud with kT ex << h  then the optical thickness of the line absorption is expressed as where u and l: upper and lower states, g u and g l : degeneracy of each state, A ul : Einstein’s coefficient, N l : column density of the molecules in the lower state, and  V: line width in units of velocity.

26. Assumption: almost all the molecules occupy the lowest energy state. Absorption line flux in the extinction free case is where  is a line width in units of frequency, S: continuum flux density of the IR source behind the cloud. Subscript 0 means extinction-free. We consider  V=100 kms -1 for the line, and S=10mJy as a baseline model. If the line optical thickness is smaller than 0.01, it is very difficult to detect. We therefore assume  line,0 =0.01.

27. The dust extinction is introduced as where A /A V : extinction curve, and A V /N H : normalization. We use the Galactic extinction (Mathis 1990) as a baseline model. We also see the effect of different extinction curves. The extinction scales with metallicity Z. Using this, absorption line flux with extinction is obtained as

28. Summary of the parameters for this calculation The detection limits is for SPICA (Ueno et al. 2000).

29. (Shibai et al. 2001, PASJ, 53, 589) Considered hydrogen lines in the IR

30. 3. Results 3.1 Absorption lines vs. dust extinction (metallicity) Z = 1 Z sun Z = 0.01 Z sun If the metallicity is one solar, we cannot detect these lines because of strong extinction. But if Z = 0.01 Z sun, they can be detected by SPICA.

31. Solid line is the result for the Galactic extinction, while the dotted line is the mixed-case extinction curve, and dashed line is for the unmixed-case one. The result is sensitive to the extinction curve when the column density of the gas is high. 3.2 Effect of extinction curve

32. 3.3 Possible background source We consider QSOs, especially lensed ones. If we put some known QSOs at z=5, they have flux densities around 10mJy. Considering a 60K blackbody, 17, 28, and 112  m lines will be suitable for this observation, but 2  m line is hard to detect because of the weak continuum. 17, 28  m: IR 112  m: submm SPICA ALMA

33. 4. What can we learn? Consider a protogalactic cloud of M ~ 10 11 M sun. Since the radius R is a few kpc in this case, we have its column density where f : gas mass fraction of molecular clouds. This fraction can be very high ( ~ 1) when N H is high enough (Hirashita & Ferrara 2005). Its evolution occurs in a free-fall timescale, much shorter than the cosmic evolution timescale, e.g., Hubble time. Observed properties are specific to the redshift at which the cloud absorption is measured.

34. We obtain z and  V (velocity dispersion) of primordial gas clouds from this observation. These quantities tell us their dynamical evolution through the structure formation theory. Collapse of a massive cloud (M ~ 10 11 M sun ) at z < 5: Basically observed in the IR, SPICA will be useful Population III objects (M ~ 10 6-9 M sun ) at z > 5: Observed in the submm, ALMA will be required

35. Summary

36. 1. Summary of dust emission model 1.We constructed a model for the SED of forming galaxies based on a new theory of dust production by SN II. 2.The model (unmixed case) roughly reproduced the observed SED of a local low-metallicity dwarf SBS0335- 052, which has a peculiar strong and MIR-bright dust emission. 3. We also calculated the SED of a very high-z forming small galaxy. Although it may be intrinsically too faint to be detected even by ALMA, gravitational lensing can make it possible.

37. 2. Summary of IR Absorption Measurement of H 2 1.We proposed a method to measure the amount of H 2 in primordial low-metallicity cloud in absorption in an IR spectra of QSOs. 2.If the metallicity of the cloud is low (Z ~ 0.01 Z sun ), dust extinction is expected to be so weak that 17 and 28  m lines are detectable by SPICA for objects at z < 5. Small very high-z population III objects will be detected by ALMA. 3.By this method, we can trace back the dynamical evolution of early collapsing objects at very high redshifts.

39. Dust grain species produced by SN II

40. Grain size spectrum of dust produced by SN II (Nozawa et al. 2003, ApJ, 598, 785)

41. Chemical evolution (a little more) Closed-box model is assumed. where SFH is assumed to be constant, and we adopted Salpeter IMF Time evolution of the mass of ISM Remnant mass (fitting formula)

42. Important transitions of H 2 molecules

43. Equivalent width of some IR lines The second line follows by the optically thin condition.

44. Herschel SPICA SPICA sensitivity

45. H 2 17  m line for various Z