1. Eutrophication Lecture 1 Definition and History DPSIR framework Alice Newton F. Colijn Ana Cristina Cardoso

2. Defining Eutrophication

3. Some etymology… Eu: Greek prefix “good” and “well” Troph: Greek “nourishment” “nutrition” “feeding” Eutrophic: Positive connotation Eutrophication: Negative connotation

4. Definition...in context Eutrophication means... Nixon, S. W. 1995. Coastal marine eutrophication: A definition, social causes, and future concerns Ophelia 41: 199-219 Medicine: "healthy or adequate nutrition“, Ecology: “an increase in the rate of supply of organic matter to an ecosystem“

5. Definitions... Eutrophication means... Jørgensen B.B. and Richardson K. (eds.). 1996 Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystem. Coastal and Estuarine Studies, vol. 52 American Geophysical Union, Washington, D.C. 272 pp, ISBN 0-87590-266-9 ‚... a process of changing the nuritional status of a given water body by increasing the nutrient resources‘ (Jørgensen and Richardson 1996)...natural ‚...the increase in trophic state of a water through anthropogenic influences‘ (Sommer 1998)

6. Ecological definition… ~ Eutrophication: organic and nutrient enrichment of natural waters ~ Natural eutrophication in regions of upwelling: cold, deep, nutrient-rich waters rise to surface e.g. Chile ~ Anthropogenic eutrophication is result of nutrient pollution of natural waters e.g. lakes, rivers, aquifers, estuaries, bays, coastal waters, mainly from sewage and/or agriculture

7. Natural Science definition of Eutrophication…the good? ~ “Stimulation of algal growth by enrichment of the aquatic environment with mineral nutrients” (Richardson, 1989) ~ Natural processes are the agents of enrichment: includes naturally eutrophic coastal waters, such as upwelling regions

8. The Primary Productivity of the oceans varies both spatially and seasonally Courtesy of Gay Mitchelson–Jacob

9. The Atlantic is much more nutrient-rich and more productive than the Mediterranean Courtesy of Gay Mitchelson–Jacob Mediterranean Chlorophyll CZCS composite

10. Courtesy of Gay Mitchelson–Jacob Upwelling regions are especially productive, e.g. the coast of Chile

11. Coastal Upwelling off W. Africa Courtesy of Gay Mitchelson–Jacob Chlorophyll Concentrations (CZCS), Cape Verde Islands

12. Management definition of Eutrophication… the Bad? ~ Anthropogenic Eutrophication: mankind is the agent responsible for nutrient and/or organic enrichment

13. Definition Eutrophication means... ‚...the enrichment of water by nutrients causing an accelerated growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an undesirable disturbance to the balance of the organisms present in the water and to the quality of the water concerned, and therefore refers to the undesirable effects resulting from anthropogenic enrichment by nutrients as described in the Common Procedure.‘ OSPAR

14. Definition Eutrophication means... ‚... the process of enrichment of waters with plant nutrients, primarily nitrogen and phosphorus, that stimulates aquatic primary production and in its most serious manifestations leads to visible algal blooms, algal scum, enhanced benthic algal growth and, at times, to massive growth of submersed and floating macrophytes‘ (Vollenweider 1992) Vollenweider, R. A., R. Marchetti and R. Viviani (eds.). 1992. Marine Coastal Eutrophication. The Response of Marine Transitional Systems to Human Impact: Problems and Perspectives for Restoration. Proceedings, International Conference, Bologna, Italy, 21-24 March 1990. Elsevier, Amsterdam.

15. Definition Eutrophication means... “The enrichment of waters by inorganic plant nutrients which results in the stimulation of an array of symptomatic changes. These include the increased production of algae and/or other aquatic plants, affecting the quality of the water and disturbing the balance of organisms present within it. Such changes may be undesirable and interfere with water uses.” UK Environment Agency

16. Definition Eutrophication means... “Enhanced primary production due to excess supply of nutrients from human activities, independent of the natural productivity level for the area in question” EEA-European Environment Agency definition

17. Nutrients & Eutrophication ~ The main nutrients causing eutrophication are N in the form of nitrate, nitrite or ammonium and P in the form of ortho-phosphate. ~ In addition, supply of bioavailable organic P and N cause eutrophication ~ Silicate is essential for diatom growth, but it is assumed that silicate input is not significantly influenced by human activity. ~ Enhanced primary productivity may exhaust silicate and change the phytoplankton community from diatoms to flagellates. EEA-European Environment Agency

18. Definition Eutrophication means... ‘ The enrichment of water by nutrients, especially compounds of nitrogen and/or phosphorus, causing an accelerated growth of algae and higher forms of plant life to produce an undesirable disturbance to the water balance of organisms present in the water and to the quality of the water concerned’ (cf. Art. 2(11) of the UWWTD Directive 91/271/EEC).

19. Definition Eutrophication is... ‘the accelerated production of organic matter, particularly algae, in a water body. It is usually caused by an increase in the amount of nutrients being discharged to the water body. As a result of accelerated algal production, a variety of impacts may occur, including nuisance and toxic algal blooms, depleted dissolved oxygen, and loss of submerged aquatic vegetation. These impacts are interrelated and usually viewed as having a negative effect on water quality and ecosystem health.” Bricker et al 2003

20. Conceptual Models of Eutrophication DPSIR framework

21. ~ Some definitions… ~ DPSIR + eutrophication ~ Evolving concepts of Eutrophication DPSIR

22. ~ Drivers: socio-economic, e.g. tourist development ~ Pressures: e.g. increase nutrient runoff ~ State: quantifiable metrics, e.g. Dissolved Oxygen, chlorophyll a concentration ~ Impacts: ~ environmental e.g. increase turbidity, ~ ecological, e.g. loss of biodiversity, ~ economic e.g. lower fish catches, ~ social e.g. loss of fishing jobs ~ Responses: of society, e.g. new management criteria, new infrastructure, new policy

23. DPSIR + eutrophication BOD DO Nutrients O.E.C.D. 1993, 2004 Pressures State variables Responses

24. DPSIR + Eutrophication Borja, A. et al 2006, after Bricker et al 1999

25. DPSIR + eutrophication

26. Drivers Agriculture Aquaculture Industry Urban development Global change Aliaume et al 2007 Aliaume, C., Do Chi, T, Viaroli, P., and Zaldivar, J.M.,2007. Coastal lagoons of Southern Europe: Recent changes and future scenarios. Transitional Waters Monographs 1: 1-12.

27. DPSIR in coastal and transitional waters Borja, A. et al 2006

28. Main pressure categories ~ Pollution ~ Hydrological alterations ~ Morphology ~ Biology and biomass extraction Borja, A., Galparsoro, I., Solaun, 0., Muxika, I., Tello,E.-M., Uriarte, A., Valencia, V. 2006 The European Water Framework Directive and the DPSIR, a methodological approach to assess the risk of failing to achieve good ecological status. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 66, 84-96.

29. Common PRESSURES Organic and chemical pollution (e.g. from agricultural and agrochemical activities, animal rearing and food industry) Μodification of hydrological regime (hydroelectric dams, fresh water abstraction, etc) Urban development Fishing and aquaculture

30. Eutrophication process UK EA Pressure State Impact

31. Early Eutrophication Model Nutrient loading Responses: Changes in Chlorophyll Primary Production System Metabolism Oxygen Early conceptual models focused on direct responses of coastal waters, such as stimulation of phytoplankton blooms. Note : different use of “response”

32. Contemporary conceptual model Nutrient loading Filter Direct Responses Chlorophyll Primary Production Macroalgal biomass Sedimentation of O C System Metabolism Phyto. community Si:N N:P Oxygen HAB Indirect Responses Benthic biomass Pelagic biomass Vascular plants Habitat diversity Water transparency O C in sediments Sediment biogeochemistry Bottom-water oxygen Seasonal cycles Mortality Biodiversity Cloern, J.E. 2001. Review. Our evolving conceptual model of the coastal eutrophication problem. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 210: 223-253. Note : different use of “response”, substitute “effects” for clarity

33. Contemporary conceptual model ~ Growing awareness of the complexity of the problem ~ Attributes of specific bodies of water create enormous variations in their responses ~ Cascade of direct and indirect consequences ~ Appropriate management actions to reduce nutrient inputs can reverse some of the degradation caused by enrichment.

34. Eutrophication concept Direct Effects Phytoplankton community HAB Chlorophyll Macroalgal biomass Primary Production Sedimentation of OC Si:N N:P Indirect Effects Benthic community Pelagic community Vascular plants Transparency Bottom water Oxygen OC in sediments Sediment biogeochemistry Habitat diversity Seasonal cycles Mortalities Biodiversity adapted from Cloern, J.E. 2001. BQE BQE METRICS Ph-Ch QE Effects include some State and Impacts

35. STATE ECOLOGICAL IMPACT Supporting elements: Nutrient concentrations Si:N N:P Transparency Bottom water Oxygen BQE metrics Chlorophyll a Cell counts HAB Opportunist algae biomass Biodiversity of benthos AMBI Biological Quality Elements Phytoplankton Other plants Benthos Fish Annex V of WFD and Intercalibration

36. Impacts ~ Environmental ~ Ecological ~ Economic ~ Social ~ ~ Poor water quality ~ ~ Loss of seagrass ~ ~ Loss of fishing catch and revenues ~ ~ Loss of fishing jobs

37. Drivers: need to update, maybe price of oil will be a major driver with increased biofuels Pressures: need to consider “difficult” aspects such as loss of denitrifying wetlands, atmospheric deposition State: need to test the metrics for the physico- chemical supporting quality elements and the Biological Quality Elements and move towards INTEGRATIVE ASSESSMENT Impact: must link economic impact to ecological impacts, NOT consider them separately. Clearly shows the value of ecosystem services Response: is building UWWT plants the only answer? What about CAP and farming practices?

38. – Require a conceptual framework which has it’s foundations in the Pressure-State-Response (PSR and/or DPSIR) context – Should be “comprehensive” enough – Should allow for discrimination between natural and anthropogenic pressures – As starting point it was adopted the conceptual framework proposed by OSPAR EU Common Conceptual Framework

39. Conceptual Framework of Eutrophication Based on OSPAR COMPP revised after the Eutrophication Workshop, September 2004

40. River-specific factorsLake-specific factorsCoastal and transitional waters specific factors Causative factors Nutrient enrichment ( P concentration) Nutrient enrichment ( P concentration) Nutrient enrichment (nitrate (DIN) and phosphate (DIP) concentrations and loadings Supporting factors Hydromorphological conditions (water flow, substrate type, water depth, flood frequency) Typology factors: alkalinity, colour, size of catchment Stratification, flushing, retention time Typology factors: alkalinity, colour, size, depth Upwelling, salinity gradients, Typology factors: salinity, wave exposure, others Causative parameters

41. River-specific factorsLake-specific factorsCoastal and trasititonal waters specific factors Microphytobenthos increased biomass and primary production, increased areal cover on substrate Shifts in species composition from diatoms to chlorophytes and cyanobacteria Phytoplankton shifts in species composition from chrysophytes and diatoms to cyanobacteria and chlorophytes Phytoplankton shifts in species composition from diatoms to flagellates Macrophytes (and macroalgae) shift from long-lived species to short-lived species, some of which are nuisance species (Ulva, Enteromorpha) macroflora Effect on macroflora Chlorophyll-a concentration Effect on algae Direct effects of nutrient enrichment

42. River-specific factorsLake-specific factorsCoastal and transitional waters specific factors Oxygen more extreme diurnal variation Fish disruption of migration or movement Benthic heterotrophic organisms increased biomass and areal cover of fungi and bacteria Oxygen more extreme diurnal variation in surface waters. Occurrence of anoxic zones at the sediment surface (“black spots”) Fish mortalities resulting from low oxygen concentrations Internal loading of phosphorus Increased ammonia concentration in bottom waters Organic carbon/organic matter occurrence of foam and/or slime Ocurrence and magnitude of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Oxygen occurrence of anoxic zones at the sediment surface (“black spots”) Release of nutrients and sulphide from sediment Changes in fauna Algal scumsOxygen deficiency Shellfish poisoning Indirect effects of nutrient enrichment

43. History of Eutrophication

45. Historical fertilizer shortage ~ 18 th Century England “mined” battlefields and catacombs ~ 19 th Century USA used bones from buffalo killing fields

46. Guano deposits mined Navassa guano trench Guano Production!

47. Haber-Bosch Process ~ Fritz Haber (Nobel prize winner) described chemical process to produce NH 3 from N 2 & CH 4 ~ Carl Bosch (Nobel prize winner) perfected commercial manufacture

48. Industrial N fixation N 2 from atmosphere mixed with CH 4 and heated under pressure with a metallic catalizer produces CO 2 and NH 3 (82%N) Mean plant production is 1.5 million kg ammonia per day

49. History of Eutrophication Eutrophication first noticed in lakes where P is the main problem

50. Eutrophication of lakes Eutrophication worldwide (Lakes).pdf

51. Eutrophication also noticed in rivers River Neuse

52. Eutrophication noticed Estuaries: eg Chesapeake bay

53. Bays and coastal waters affected: eg Gulf of Mexico“dead zone”

54. 70 % of world population lives in coastal plains, increasing Pressure

55. Global Distribution of Documented Oxygen Depletion, Diaz 2007 n = 146 (Diaz et al., 2004)