1. Lecture 9 Meaning and use

2. A sentence should be grammatical as well as meaningful, but linguists have found more grammatical sentences than meaningful ones. A sentence should be grammatical as well as meaningful, but linguists have found more grammatical sentences than meaningful ones.

3. Little green frogs sleep quietly.

4. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. We can understand the sentence in this way (according to Chao [ 赵元任 ]) We can understand the sentence in this way (according to Chao [ 赵元任 ]) green = fresh green = fresh sleep  sleep on (= not decide about (sth) until the next day ) sleep  sleep on (= not decide about (sth) until the next day )

5. Chao: I have got some ideas recently. So they are green ideas. Some of them are colorful; some are colorless.I don’t want to publish my colorless green ideas immediately. I would rather sleep on them, or, to put it in my favorite way, let them sleep. Unfortunately, these colorless green ideas contradict each other, and fight each other furiously. So I would like to complain to my friends that colorless green ideas sleep furiously. I have got some ideas recently. So they are green ideas. Some of them are colorful; some are colorless.I don’t want to publish my colorless green ideas immediately. I would rather sleep on them, or, to put it in my favorite way, let them sleep. Unfortunately, these colorless green ideas contradict each other, and fight each other furiously. So I would like to complain to my friends that colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

6. Secret behind Chao’s “magic”: Adding an appropriate context to create plausible propositions. Adding an appropriate context to create plausible propositions. Change in the reader’s mind: Change in the reader’s mind: from semantic analysis from semantic analysis to pragmatic inference to pragmatic inference Language: Language: its logic and its use – its logic and its use –

7. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951) Our daily speech can play countless roles if it is woven into actions. Our daily speech can play countless roles if it is woven into actions. The speaking of language is part of an activity, or a form of life. The speaking of language is part of an activity, or a form of life. Such activities are language games, played by all human beings every day Such activities are language games, played by all human beings every day

8. To figure out a language game, one resorts to two resources: first – contextual inference then – predicate calculus

9. Ideas green furiously colorless sleep Impossible sentence Why? No hope to figure out any propositions.

10. Another game: Contextualize the short sentence below. Time flies!

11. Suppose insects also hold their Olympic Games, and one game is for flies to “ run ” a race (with their wings, not legs, of course). Once before a race starts, the Chairman of the Games reminds an absent-minded timer loudly, “ Time flies! ”

12. Time flies! Time is the name of a baby angel in my dream. She has two wings but she is too fragile to fly … I hope I ’ ll encounter my angel again tonight, and this time I ’ ll see her fluttering her wings in the sky. Then I ’ ll quickly awake and tell my mother: ‘ Time flies! ‘

13. Wittgenstein ’ s aphorism "The meaning of a word is its use in a language".

14. Speech acts Austin

15. How to do things with words? -- Austin’s speech act theory (1) locutionary act 以言指事 (1) locutionary act 以言指事 This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. “The act of saying something in the full sense of 'say'.” This is the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. “The act of saying something in the full sense of 'say'.” A familiar example: A familiar example: A: I need something to write with. A: I need something to write with. B: There is a pen on the table. B: There is a pen on the table. / A pen is on the table. / A pen is on the table.

16. (2) illocutionary act 以言行事 Using a sentence to perform a function. “The act performed in saying something.” e.g. e.g. In saying There is a pen on the table B is to provide some new information needed by A. In saying There is a pen on the table B is to provide some new information needed by A. In saying A pen is on the table B emphasizes the shared information. In saying A pen is on the table B emphasizes the shared information.

17. (3) perlocutionary act 以言成事 The results or effects that are produced by The results or effects that are produced by means of saying something. “The act performed by or as a result of saying.” e.g. By saying There is a pen on the table B offers help to A. By saying There is a pen on the table B offers help to A. By saying A pen is on the table B shows his impatience and irritated A. By saying A pen is on the table B shows his impatience and irritated A.

18. “Shoot the snake!” a locutionary act if the hearer understands all the words and the sentence structure; a locutionary act if the hearer understands all the words and the sentence structure; an illocutionary act if the sentence is understood as an order or a piece of advice; an illocutionary act if the sentence is understood as an order or a piece of advice; a perlocutionary act if the snake is shot. a perlocutionary act if the snake is shot.

19. Wittgenstein’s viewpoints To know the meaning of a word, you have to take the situation (context) and intention of its use. To know the meaning of a word, you have to take the situation (context) and intention of its use. Language should not be viewed as an abstract calculus but as a tool, and just like a hammer or an opener, the proper characterization of a linguistic expression must include an account of how it is used, what it is used for. Language should not be viewed as an abstract calculus but as a tool, and just like a hammer or an opener, the proper characterization of a linguistic expression must include an account of how it is used, what it is used for.

20. A child does not acquire the meanings of words or expressions from the formal definition, but instead from the way they are used by the people around him, and through other people’s response to his own use of them A child does not acquire the meanings of words or expressions from the formal definition, but instead from the way they are used by the people around him, and through other people’s response to his own use of them “On this evidence, there seems little doubt that meaning of a word is governed by its use.” “On this evidence, there seems little doubt that meaning of a word is governed by its use.” -- Allan (1986) -- Allan (1986)

21. Searle:Focusing on the illocutionary act. -- people use sentences (utterances) to do things. e.g. 'The earth is round.' a proposition + a statement 'I'll return the book to you tomorrow.' a proposition + a promise

22. The responses to these speech acts are different: Response to a Statement “Yes, it is.” or “No, it isn't” “Yes, it is.” or “No, it isn't” Response to a Promise “Thank you.” or “I wonder if I could have it today.”

23. felicitious & infelicitious Examples of felicity (1) I promise to come to dinner. (1) I promise to come to dinner. (2) I name the ship SS Elizabeth. (2) I name the ship SS Elizabeth. (3) I hereby appoint you chairman of the committee. (3) I hereby appoint you chairman of the committee. Examples of infelicity *(4) I promise to forget my name. *(4) I promise to forget my name. *(5) I request you to be born in Shanghai. *(5) I request you to be born in Shanghai. *(6) I order that the earth be round. *(6) I order that the earth be round.

24. Explicit vs implicit performatives Most illocutionary utterances seem to begin with the pronoun 'I', they can be called explicit performatives, but there are also implicit performatives which can play the same function. Explicit Implicit Explicit Implicit I order you to shut it. Shut it. I order you to shut it. Shut it. I promise I'll be there. I'll be there without I promise I'll be there. I'll be there without fail. fail. I conclude that X. Therefore, X I conclude that X. Therefore, X I warn you the bull will charge. There is a bull I warn you the bull will charge. There is a bull behind. behind.

25. Conversational implicature Grice

26. A: What ’ s with your boss? B: Let ’ s go upstairs. particularized conversational implicature A: Did you manage to fix the leak? B: I tried to. generalized conversational implicature

27. Principles for language in use Grice

28. F. The reality principle and the cooperative principle The reality principle refers to the substance of a sentence, the idea being talked about (What?). According to this principle, listeners interpret sentences in the belief that the speaker is referring to a situation or sets of ideas they can make sense of. People rely on this principle to solve ambiguities in the processing of sentences. The reality principle refers to the substance of a sentence, the idea being talked about (What?). According to this principle, listeners interpret sentences in the belief that the speaker is referring to a situation or sets of ideas they can make sense of. People rely on this principle to solve ambiguities in the processing of sentences.

29. The cooperative principle refers to the way these ideas are expressed (How?). According to this principle, the listener interpret sentences in the belief that the speaker is trying to tell the truth, tell them all they need to know and no more, and use sentences clearly and unambiguously. The cooperative principle refers to the way these ideas are expressed (How?). According to this principle, the listener interpret sentences in the belief that the speaker is trying to tell the truth, tell them all they need to know and no more, and use sentences clearly and unambiguously.

30. (i) Maxim of Quality: (i) Maxim of Quality: Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. e.g. I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock. e.g. I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock. violation: violation: I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock, and I were hungry the whole morning. I had my breakfast at 7 o’clock, and I were hungry the whole morning.

31. (ii) Maxim of quantity: Make sure your contribution is as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange (i.e. not more or less informative). Make sure your contribution is as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange (i.e. not more or less informative). e.g. A: Where is John? B: He is in the classroom. B: He is in the classroom.violation: Where is John? Where is John? John is a very fat boy and has two brothers. He is in the classroom. John is a very fat boy and has two brothers. He is in the classroom.

32. (iii) Maxim of Relevance: Make your contribution relevant to the aims of the ongoing conversation. e.g. A: Can I borrow $5? B: My purse is over there. B: My purse is over there.violation: A: Can I borrow $5? A: Can I borrow $5? B: My pipe is over there. B: My pipe is over there.

33. (iv) Maxim of Manner: Be clear. Try to avoid obscurity, ambiguity, wordiness, and disorderliness in your use of language. e.g. He got on the bus, carrying a briefcase under his arm. e.g. He got on the bus, carrying a briefcase under his arm.violation: He carried a briefcase under his arm, getting on the bus. He carried a briefcase under his arm, getting on the bus.

34. All these maxims can be flouted in order to achieve rhetoric effects. All these maxims can be flouted in order to achieve rhetoric effects. e.g. You are the cream in my coffee. e.g. You are the cream in my coffee. Where’ve you been? Where’ve you been? Out. Out. What do you intend to do today? What do you intend to do today? I have a terrible headache. I have a terrible headache. Shall we get something for the kids? Shall we get something for the kids? Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M. Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.

35. Flouting maxims enjoyably Please read Section 9.4 for more interesting examples Please read Section 9.4 for more interesting examples

36. Review: Grice (1975, 1981) Intentional communication Intentional communication Cooperative principle Cooperative principle Conversational implicature Conversational implicature

37. Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) Relevance theory Code model Code model Inferential model Inferential model

38. Sperber & Wilson (1986,1995) Relevance theory mutual manifestness mutual manifestness Relevance Relevance

39. Example A: Do you want some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. Contextual assumptions: a. B does not want to stay awake. b. B does not want any coffee. c. B wants to stay awake./ B wants anything that will keep her awake. d. B wants some coffee.

40. Relevance of a phenomenon to an individual Extent condition 1: A phenomenon is relevant to an individual to the extent that the contextual effects achieved in processing it are large. Extent condition 2: A phenomenon is relevant to an individual to the extent that the effort required to process it is small.

41. Contextual assumptions Logic information Logic information Encyclopedic information Encyclopedic information Lexical information Lexical information