1. Transport in Aquatic Ecosystems Horizontal Inflows - Advection Turbulence – critical for vertical fluxes

2. Turbulent Eddies These Play a Key Role in Vertical and Horizontal Transport!!!

3. Dimensionless Numbers Comprehensive terms that take into account all the variables influencing the potential for a type of flow Reynolds Number Richardson Number Wedderburn Number Re and Ri are used to determine whether flows will become turbulent. W is used to determine whether wind forcing will induce tilting of the thermocline and ultimately shear production and turbulence.

4. Reynolds Number - Re Re = u l/ v u = velocity l = a linear dimension (e.g., width of a pipe, depth of the mixed layer Length of a submerged coral reef) V = kinematic viscosity (a measure of the stickiness of a fluid) 10 -6 m 2 s -1 Ratio of the inertial forces that set a fluid in motion to the viscous ones that retard motion. Indicates whether a flow will be laminar or turbulent. High values indicate turbulence! Applies to unstratified flows and flows around organisms.

5. Laminar and Turbulent Flows

6. Turbulent Boundary Layer Can be driven by heat loss at air-water interface and/or shear. Upper photos, Reynolds Number = 9400, lower, 600.

7. Wind Induced Circulation in Lakes Mortimer

8. Entrainment and Mixed Layer Deepening Occurs due to heat loss generally in combination with wind forcing. Examples: Sargasso Sea during Fall and Winter Mono Lake during Fall and Winter L. Victoria during Monsoon period Nocturnal cooling Z Temperature Temperature, Summer in AM (note, mixed layer will stratify in Afternoon unless it is cloudy). Temperature after cooling, Mixed layer is deeper and cooler. If nutrient concentrations are higher at the depths where water Is entrained than in the overlying water, these events will lead to increased concentrations in the overlying water.

9. Turbulence in Upper Mixed Layer Circulates phytoplankton cells May reduce photoinhibition leading to higher overall rates of photosynthesis May facilitate or reduce success of feeding by zooplankton and fish larvae. May entrain nutrients from thermocline

10. Internal Waves in Stratified Flows Initiated by wind.

11. Shear Flow induces Stretching of Patches Shear is induced by currents from wind or internal waves.

12. Richardson Number - Ri Ratio of buoyancy forces to inertial forces. Ri = g/p (dp/dz)/(du/dz) 2 g = gravity (9.81 m s-2) p = density (kg/m3) z = depth u = velocity Instability results if Richardson number drops below critical value. Ri < 0.25 Applies to stratified flows!

13. Kelvin Helmholtz Billows Form due to shear in Stratified water bodies Instability results if Richardson number drops below critical value. Ri < 0.25 Ri = g/p (dp/dz)/(du/dz) 2 g = gravity (9.81 m s -2 ) p = density (kg/m 3 ) z = depth u = velocity

14. Tracer Experiments in Mediterranean Sea Do Kelvin Helmholtz Billows Occur in Nature?

15. Kelvin Helmholtz Billows Vertical and Horizontal Scales – 10 m and 100 m respectively.

16. Frequency of Billows in Loch Ness Frequency of density inversions: Black ~30% Dotted 15-30% Gray < 15% White – not detected.

17. Wind Induced Circulation 3 dimensional model of hydrodynamics of Lake Kinneret, Israel.

18. Where Does Turbulence Occur? Throughout metalimnion? Near Boundaries??? With subsequent flows to interior?

19. Dimensionless Indices – Wedderburn Number Indicates whether wind forcing is sufficient relative to stratification to induce shear to mix a lake. W = (g (dp/dz) h 2 ) / pu * 2 L g = gravity (9.8 m s -2 ) p is density (kg m -3 ) h is mixed layer depth u * is water friction velocity, 0.001 times wind speed L is length of the lake

20. U U U U W > 15 2 < W < 15 W ~ 1 W << 1 No shear Shear Complete mixing Eddies Ri > 0.25 Kz, molecular Ri < 0.25 occasionally Kz > molecular Ri < 0.25 more frequently Kz > 10 to 100 x molecular diffusivity thermocline Wedderburn Number and extent of Mixing in Metalimnion Thermocline, before wind Thermocline tilt from wind

21. 3 D Hydrodynamic Models of Internal Waves for different values of Wedderburn Number

22. Where will Fluxes of Nutrients Occur? Mid-lake? At a Lake’s Boundaries If Nutrient Fluxes are Spatially Heterogenous, What will be the Impact on Primary Production?