1. Mitigation 1

2. Reducing Methane Emissions Methane is contributing about 15 to 20 % to the current global warming. Because of its shorter lifetime of about 12 years it is easier for emission cuts to lower concentrations. Reduction possibilities: 1. Methane emissions from biomass burning can be cut by about a third if deforestation was drastically curtailed. 2. Methane emissions from landfill sites can be cut by at least a third with improved recycling or methane capture for energy generation. 3. Methane leakage from the mining and petrochemical industry could be cut by about a third. 4. Reductions by having better agricultural management. 2

3. Area of rectangle is proportional to total emissions for that country. 3

4. How can emissions be reduced? SectorKey mitigation technologies and practices currently commercially available. Energy Supplyefficiency; fuel switching; nuclear power; renewable (hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal and bioenergy); combined heat and power; early applications of CO2 Capture and Storage TransportMore fuel efficient vehicles; hybrid vehicles; biofuels; modal shifts from road transport to rail and public transport systems; cycling, walking; land-use planning BuildingsEfficient lighting; efficient appliances and air conditioning; improved insulation ; solar heating and cooling; alternatives for fluorinated gases in insulation and appliances 4

5. Sector(Selected) Key mitigation technologies and practices currently commercially available. IndustryMore efficient electrical equipment; heat and power recovery; material recycling; control of non-CO 2 gas emissions AgricultureLand management to increase soil carbon storage; restoration of degraded lands; improved rice cultivation techniques; improved nitrogen fertilizer application; dedicated energy crops ForestsAfforestation; reforestation; forest management; reduced deforestation; use of forestry products for bioenergy WasteLandfill methane recovery; waste incineration with energy recovery; composting; recycling and waste minimization How can emissions be reduced? (continued) 5

6. There are also co-benefits of mitigation Near–term health benefits from reduced air pollution may offset a substantial fraction of mitigation costs. Mitigation can also be positive for: energy security, balance of trade improvement. BUT Mitigation in one country or group of countries could lead to higher emissions elsewhere (“carbon leakage”) or effects on the economy (“spill-over effects”). 6

7. Policies are available to governments to realise mitigation of climate change Integrating climate policies in broader development policies Regulations and standards Taxes and charges Tradable permits Financial incentives Voluntary agreements Information instruments Research and development 7

8. Selected sectoral policies, measures and instruments that have shown to be environmentally effective SectorPolicies[1], measures and instruments shown to be environmentally effective[1] Key constraints or opportunities Energy supply Reduction of fossil fuel subsidies Resistance by vested interests may make them difficult to implement Taxes or carbon charges on fossil fuels Feed-in tariffs for renewable energy technologies May be appropriate to create markets for low emissions technologies Renewable energy obligations Producer subsidies [1] Public RD&D investment in low emission technologies have proven to be effective in all sectors. 8

9. Selected sectoral policies, measures and instruments that have shown to be environmentally effective SectorPolicies[1], measures and instruments shown to be environmentally effective[1] Key constraints or opportunities TransportMandatory fuel economy, biofuel blending and CO 2 standards for road transport Partial coverage of vehicle fleet may limit effectiveness Taxes on vehicle purchase, registration, use and motor fuels, road and parking pricing Effectiveness may drop with higher incomes Influence mobility needs through land use regulations, and infrastructure planning Particularly appropriate for countries that are building up their transportation systems Investment in attractive public transport facilities and non-motorised forms of transport 9

10. The importance of a “price of carbon” Policies that provide a real or implicit price of carbon could create incentives for producers and consumers to significantly invest in low- GHG products, technologies and processes. Such policies could include economic instruments, government funding and regulation For stabilisation at around 550 ppm CO2eq carbon prices should reach 20-80 US$/tCO2eq by 2030 At these carbon prices large shifts of investments into low carbon technologies can be expected 10

11. The importance of technology policies (example of Canada) Deployment of low-GHG emission technologies and R&D would be required for achieving stabilization targets and cost reduction. The lower the stabilization levels, especially those of 550 ppm CO2-eq or lower, the greater the need for more efficient RD&D efforts and investment in new technologies during the next few decades. Government support through financial contributions, tax credits, standard setting and market creation is important for effective technology development, innovation and deployment. Government funding for most energy research programmes has been flat or declining for nearly two decades (even after the UNFCCC came into force); now about half of 1980 level. 11

12. Sustainable development and climate change mitigation Making development more sustainable by changing development paths can make a major contribution to climate change mitigation. Macroeconomic policy, agricultural policy, multilateral development bank lending, insurance practices, electricity market reform, energy security policy and forest conservation can significantly reduce emissions. Implementation may require resources to overcome multiple barriers. Possibilities to choose and implement mitigation options to realise synergies and avoid conflicts with other dimensions of sustainable development. 12

13. http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/ghg/newsrelease2006_e.cfm 13

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15. From Energy Sources to Energy Users 15

16. Ever increasing thirst for energy 16

17. Millions of tons of oil equivalent Recent Energy Use 13 terawatts = 13 x 10 12 W 17

18. Per capita energy use http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Energy-consumption-per-capita-2003.png 18

19. Comparing Fossil Fuel Reserves with Past and Future Consumption 100 years for oil and gas 1000 years for coal 19

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21. Traditional Coal Oil Natural Gas 21

22. Energy Conservation Reducing waste (turn off the lights). Improving efficiency of appliances and furnaces. Improving home insulation. 22

23. Issues in home insulation. 23

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25. Transportation accounts for nearly ¼ of global greenhouse emissions. 25

26. For Canada 26

27. http://www.sciam.com/media/inline/000E196C-AD52-14E9-AD0683414B7F4945_lg.gif 6 wedges to reduce carbon dioxide emissions (United States version) Switching to renewables will not be the main solution. 27

28. Carbon Sequestering (Capture and Storage) Use various technologies to capture and store the carbon dioxide. Some issues: 1. Costs energy to do this. but energy costs are small compared to energy produced. 2. Where do you store the carbon dioxide and in what form? underground, especially old fossil fuel fields. 3. Provides an excuse for not switching to renewables. we are not able to switch anyhow in the next 50 years. 4. Technology is not in place but some countries have started. 28

29. CCS systems showing the carbon sources for which CCS might be relevant, and options for the transport and storage of CO2. 29

30. Investment in renewable energy research and development has been poor IEA = International Energy Agency (26 member countries) 30

31. Renewable Energy – Most derives from the Sun Sun’s output = 180,000 TW = 180,000 x 10 12 watts Global energy use = 13 TW We extract energy from the sun directly as: 1. heat (passive solar heating of water) very efficient but not a versatile form of power. 2. electricity (solar cell, photovoltaics) up to 20 % efficiency Solar energy drives the hydrological cycle, photosynthesis and the winds. We extract this solar energy indirectly as: 1. hydroelectric turbines from falling water up to 80 % efficiency 2. biofuels photosynthesis is very inefficient ~ 1 % 3. wind turbines atmospheric efficiency from sun to wind ~ 2 % however wind turbine efficiency is ~ 35 % 31

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33. Hydroelectric Power Largest project is the Three Gorges on the Yangtze River in China. When completed it will generate 20,000 MW. highly problematic… Globally hydroelectric power can likely generate 3-4 times more than it current does. Downside with large projects: 1. Loss of land to flooding. 2. Movement of population. 3. Sedimentation and leaching problems. 4. Destruction of habitats. Perhaps more small generators on smaller rivers would be desirable. 33

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35. A distant view of the massive Three Gorges hydropower project under construction on the Yangtze River. 35

36. Biomass as Fuel Converting crops into fuel. future problem of food competing with energy. Developing world relies heavily on ‘traditional biomass’ wood, dung, rice husks, etc. 10 % of global energy consumed is from this source. This is an inefficient way of extracting energy. But it supplies energy to 1/3 of the global population. Responsible for serious air quality problems (indoor pollution). Responsible for local loss of trees and other plants. Larger scale biomass projects in the rural developing world. most based on biomass gasification plants 36

37. Example of biomass fuel – sugar cane industry 37

38. Garbage – Burn it or Bury it? Landfills -creates methane which is a stronger greenhouse gas than CO2 on a per molecule basis. -hard to collect all the methane for energy production. -issues of land use and contamination. Incineration -potential pollution issues (need very hot and efficient combustion). -release of trace toxins? -use the heat created on burning to create electricity Study in UK showed that if all domestic waste was incinerated instead of landfilled the net annual emission reduction would be about 10 Mt of carbon or 5 % of the total UK greenhouse emissions. 38

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40. Wind Energy Over 30 GW of generation globally in 2002. Each turbine generates 200 kW to 6 MW. Location is crucial to maximize production of electricity. Need a back-up or storage when winds are light. Costs are now competitive with fossil fuel plants. 40

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42. Solar Power 1. Solar Thermal Power use sun to directly heat something. solar cooking stoves. water that can then be pumped around. create steam to drive a turbine to create electricity. 2. Solar cells (photovoltaics or PVs) directly convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor technology. 1 one square metre panel can deliver 100 to 200 W. solar panels can be made part of the building façade. small units are used where power demands are modest. Global generation is 1500 MW in 2002. 42

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45. Photo-voltaics (direct conversion of sunlight into electricity) 45

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47. Other renewable energies 1. Geothermal 2. Ocean Tides, Waves and Currents Nuclear Energy Does not produce greenhouse gas emissions. There is a huge reserve of uranium. Only efficient (and safe) in large centralized power plants. Issues: High cost of decommissioning nuclear facilities Danger of radioactive waste Consequences in case of accidents or ‘terrorism.’ 47

48. Future Technologies Impossible to predict 100 years in the future. However in the next couple of decades fuel cell technology should become common. First need to use electrolysis to separate hydrogen from water. This can be done in many ways. Cleanest way is using solar photovoltaics. The hydrogen is stored and is now portable. Safe and convenient storage technology is still a problem. Energy is produced when the hydrogen recombines with oxygen in a fuel cell to form water thereby releasing its energy. It is currently too expensive. 48

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50. http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=12148 Three Principles of Sustainable Development