2. Covalent Compound Notes

3. Why do atoms bond? Atoms gain stability when they share electrons and form covalent bonds. Lower energy states make an atom more stable. Gaining or losing electrons makes atoms more stable by forming ions with noble-gas electron configurations. Sharing valence electrons with other atoms also results in noble-gas electron configurations.

4. Why do atoms bond? (cont.) Atoms in non-ionic compounds share electrons. The chemical bond that results from sharing electrons is a covalent bond.covalent bond A molecule is formed when two or more atoms bond.molecule

5. Electronegativity and Bond Character Electronegativity measures the ability of an atom to attract electrons within a bond There are three types of chemical bonds that can form between atoms: Ionic bonds Polar Covalent bonds (partly share electrons) Non-polar Covalent bonds (fully share electrons)

6. Electronegativity and Bond Character Ionic compounds only form under certain circumstances. When one atom is much more electronegative than another, it will completely take the electron, forming ions (and therefore ionic compounds) When two atoms have similar electronegativity values, they may share the electrons to varying degrees, forming covalent bonds. Atoms covalently share electrons when difference between their attraction is not great (electronegativity diff. less than 1.7)

7. Electronegativity and Bond Character (cont.) Noble gases are not listed because they generally do not form compounds. This table lists the character and type of bond that forms with differences in electronegativity.

8. Electron Affinity, Electronegativity, and Bond Character (cont.) Bonding is often not clearly ionic or covalent. This graph summarizes the range of chemical bonds between two atoms.

9. Polar Covalent Bonds Polar covalent bonds form when atoms pull on electrons in a molecule unequally. Electrons spend more time around one atom than another resulting in partial charges at the ends of the bond called a dipole.

10. In order to refer to any compound, chemists use the same rules of naming. Ionic compounds simply name the two halves of the compound (cation, anion). Molecular compounds are not arranged in oppositely charged structures, so cannot be given names with the same process. They often have common names, but there are methods to produce technical names:

11. There are many ways to name molecular (covalent) compounds 1. Prefixes, roots, and suffixes This system simply identifies how many of each atom there are in a molecule. It places prefixes in front of the element names to identify the number of atoms for each one. The following should be memorized: mono-1, di-2, tri-3, tetra-4, penta-5, hexa-6, hepta-7, octa-8, nona-9, deca-10 For instance P 2 O 3 is: diphosphorus trioxide.

12. As you can tell, the suffix -ide is added to the end of the second element, just like in an ionic compound. Try to name the following compounds: CCl 4, SO 2, SO 3, ClF 3, PCl 3, AsF 5

13. 2. Naming acids: There are two types of acids—Binary and Oxyacids Binary acids have H+ as the cation, and have a monotomic anion. They are named as “hydro___-ic acid”, with part of the anion name listed in the blank space.

14. Oxyacids have an H+ cation and a polyatomic anion that includes oxygen. They are named with two possible suffixes: With polyatomic ions that end in –ate, the acid name replaces –ate with –ic With polyatomic ions that end in –ite, the acid name replaces it with –ous The oxyanion name is written as: _____-ic acid or ______-ous acid with part of the anion name in the blank.

15. Examples: HI HClO 3 HClO 2 H 2 SO 4 H 2 S Carbonic acid Hydrobromic acid Sulfurous Acid Chloric Acid Hydrochloric Acid

16. Why do atoms bond? (cont.) Diatomic molecules (H 2, F 2 for example) exist because two-atom molecules are more stable than single atoms.

17. Why do atoms bond? (cont.) The most stable arrangement of atoms exists at the point of maximum net attraction, where the atoms bond covalently and form a molecule.

18. Formation of Bonds Atoms are attracted to each other by the opposite charges of their electrons and the other atom’s protons. Although the electrons of the two atoms repel each other, the attraction forces are greater

19. Formation of Bonds At a certain distance, the protons of the two atoms start to repel each other The balance between the attraction and the repulsion results in an ideal bond length between the two atoms.

20. Single Covalent Bonds When only one pair of electrons is shared, the result is a single covalent bond. The figure shows two hydrogen atoms forming a hydrogen molecule with a single covalent bond, resulting in an electron configuration like helium.

21. Multiple Covalent Bonds Double bonds form when two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. Triple bonds form when three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms.

22. Double and triple bonds are shorter than single bonds, as the protons in the nuclei are attracted to more shared electrons Double and triple bonds are also stronger bonds, requiring more energy to separate them (called bond dissociation energy) See p. 246-247

23. Double and triple bonds also use fundamentally different types of bonds. Single bonds use sigma bonds, where the shared electrons are directly in-between the nuclei of both atoms The second (or third) bonds in double and triple bonds are pi bonds. These are located above or below the sigma bonds.

24. How do we determine the shape in covalent molecules? Covalent molecules are individual units, so they will have specific numbers of atoms instead of general ratios (ionic compounds). That means the empirical formula (lowest ratio of atoms) can be different from the molecular formula (actual number of atoms in a molecule).

25. Lewis Structures—represent a chemical formula, showing unshared and shared valence electrons

26. Single Covalent Bonds (cont.) In a Lewis structure dots or a line are used to symbolize a single covalent bond.Lewis structure The halogens—the group 17 elements—have 7 valence electrons and form single covalent bonds with atoms of other non-metals. Example: HCl, Cl 2

27. Single Covalent Bonds (cont.) Atoms in group 16 can share two electrons and form two covalent bonds. Water is formed from one oxygen with two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to it.

28. Single Covalent Bonds (cont.) Atoms in group 15 form three single covalent bonds, such as in ammonia.

29. Single Covalent Bonds (cont.) Atoms of group 14 elements form four single covalent bonds, such as in methane.

30. Structural Formulas (cont.) Drawing Lewis Structures –Predict the location of certain atoms. –Determine the number of electrons available for bonding. –Determine the number of bonding pairs. –Place the bonding pairs. –Determine the number of bonding pairs remaining. –Determine whether the central atom satisfies the octet rule.

32. Covalent vs. Ionic Bonds Notes Practice: O 2 CO N 2 F 2 C 3 H 6 O

33. Structural Formulas (cont.) Exceptions to the normal method of drawing Lewis structures: Atoms within a polyatomic ion are covalently bonded. Ions will change the number of electrons that are used in the Lewis Structure: Negative ions will have that many more electrons, positive ions will have that many less electrons Examples: OH -1, NH 4 +1

34. Resonance Structures Resonance is a condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion.Resonance This figure shows three correct ways to draw the structure for (NO 3 ) 1-.

35. Resonance Structures (cont.) Two or more correct Lewis structures that represent a single ion or molecule are resonance structures. The molecule behaves as though it has only one structure. The bond lengths are identical to each other and intermediate between single and double covalent bonds.

36. Exceptions to the Octet Rule Some molecules do not obey the octet rule. A small group of molecules might have an odd number of valence electrons. NO 2 has five valence electrons from nitrogen and 12 from oxygen and cannot form an exact number of electron pairs.

37. Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.) A few compounds form stable configurations with less than 8 electrons around the atom—a suboctet. A coordinate covalent bond forms when one atom donates both of the electrons to be shared with an atom or ion that needs two electrons.coordinate covalent bond

38. Exceptions to the Octet Rule (cont.) A third group of compounds has central atoms with more than eight valence electrons, called an expanded octet. Elements in period 3 or higher have a d-orbital and can form more than four covalent bonds.

40. VSEPR Model The shape of a molecule determines many of its physical and chemical properties. Molecular geometry (shape) can be determined with the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model, or VSEPR model which minimizes the repulsion of shared and unshared electrons around the central atom.VSEPR model

41. VSEPR Model (cont.) Electron pairs repel each other and cause molecules to be in fixed positions relative to each other. Unshared electron pairs also determine the shape of a molecule. Electron pairs are located in a molecule as far apart as they can be.

42. Shapes of Molecules VSEPR Theory (Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion)—Electrons are negatively charged, so they repel each other. “Electron Clouds” (bonds, unbonded pairs of electrons) will spread out in their arrangement around a central atom as much as they can

43. Shapes of Molecules That allows for many possible shapes around a central atom: 1. Linear

44. Shapes of Molecules 2. Trigonal Planar

45. Shapes of Molecules 3. Tetrahedral

46. Shapes of Molecules 4. Trigonal Pyramidal

47. Shapes of Molecules 5. Bent

52. Hybridization Hybridization is a process in which atomic orbitals mix and form new, identical hybrid orbitals. During chemical bonding, different atomic orbitals undergo hybridization. All available bonding pairs merge into multiple, identical orbitals (instead of differently shaped orbitals).Hybridization For example, carbon often undergoes hybridization, which forms an sp 3 orbital formed from one s orbital and three p orbitals. Lone pairs also occupy hybrid orbitals.

53. Hybridization (cont.) Single, double, and triple bonds occupy only one hybrid orbital (CO 2 with two double bonds forms an sp hybrid orbital). See table 8.6.

54. Polar Covalent Bonds Polar covalent bonds form when atoms pull on electrons in a molecule unequally. Electrons spend more time around one atom than another resulting in partial charges at the ends of the bond called a dipole.

55. Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.) Covalently bonded molecules are either polar or non-polar. Non-polar molecules are not attracted by an electric field. Polar molecules align with an electric field. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7b-w0oWttN0

56. Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.) Compare water and CCl 4. Both bonds are polar, but only water is a polar molecule because of the shape of the molecule.

57. Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.) The electric charge on a CCl 4 molecule measured at any distance from the center of the molecule is identical to the charge measured at the same distance on the opposite side.

58. Polar Covalent Bonds (cont.) Solubility is the property of a substance’s ability to dissolve in another substance. Polar molecules and ionic substances are usually soluble in polar substances. Non-polar molecules dissolve only in non- polar substances.

59. Properties of Covalent Compounds Covalent bonds between atoms are strong, but attraction forces between molecules are weak. The weak attraction forces are known as van der Waals forces. The forces vary in strength but are weaker than the bonds in a molecule or ions in an ionic compound.

60. Intermolecular Forces Attraction forces (van der Waals) between molecules cause some materials to be solids, some to be liquids, and some to be gases at the same temperature.

61. Intermolecular Forces (cont.) Dispersion forcesDispersion forces (London Forces) are weak forces in non-polar molecules that result from temporary shifts in density of electrons in electron clouds.

62. Intermolecular Forces (cont.) Dipole-dipole forcesDipole-dipole forces are attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules.

63. Intermolecular Forces (cont.) Hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds are special, stronger dipole- dipole attractions that occur between molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom with at least one lone pair of electrons, typically fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen.

64. Intermolecular Forces (cont.)

65. Properties of Covalent Compounds (cont.) Many physical properties are due to intermolecular forces. Weak forces result in the relatively low melting and boiling points of molecular substances. Many covalent molecules are relatively soft solids. Molecules can align in a crystal lattice, similar to ionic solids but with less attraction between particles.

66. Properties of Covalent Compounds (cont.) Solids composed of only atoms interconnected by a network of covalent bonds are called covalent network solids. Quartz and diamonds are two common examples of network solids.