1. Chapter 1, Part II: Predicate Logic With Question/Answer Animations

2. Summary Predicate Logic (First-Order Logic (FOL), Predicate Calculus) The Language of Quantifiers Logical Equivalences Nested Quantifiers Translation from Predicate Logic to English Translation from English to Predicate Logic

3. Section 1.4

4. Section Summary Predicates Variables Quantifiers Universal Quantifier Existential Quantifier Negating Quantifiers De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers Translating English to Logic

5. Propositional Logic Not Enough If we have: “All men are mortal.” “Socrates is a man.” Does it follow that “Socrates is mortal?” Example: “Every computer connected to the university network is functioning properly.” Can we conclude that “MATH3 is functioning properly”? Can’t be represented in propositional logic. Need a language that talks about objects, their properties, and their relations. Later we’ll see how to draw inferences.

6. Introducing Predicate Logic Predicate logic uses the following new features: Variables: x, y, z Predicates: P(x), M(x) Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides): Propositional functions are a generalization of propositions. They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x) Variables can be replaced by elements from their domain.

7. Propositional Functions Propositional functions become propositions (and have truth values) when their variables are each replaced by a value from the domain (or bound by a quantifier, as we will see later). The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the propositional function P at x. For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain be the integers. Then: P(- 3 ) is false. P( 0 ) is false. P( 3 ) is true. Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this example U is the integers.

8. Examples of Propositional Functions Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all three variables) be the integers. Find these truth values: R( 2,-1, 5 ) Solution: F R( 3,4,7 ) Solution: T R( 1, 2, 3 ) Solution: T R( 0, 0, 1 ) Solution: F R(x, 3, z) Solution: Not a Proposition Now let “x - y = z” be denoted by Q(x, y, z), with U as the integers. Find these truth values: Q( 2,-1,3 ) Solution: T Q( 3,4,7 ) Solution: F Q(x, 3, z) Solution: Not a Proposition

9. Compound Expressions Connectives from propositional logic carry over to predicate logic. If P(x) denotes “x > 0,” find these truth values: P( 3 ) ∨ P(-1) Solution: T P( 3 ) ∧ P(-1) Solution: F P( 3 ) → P(-1) Solution: F P( 3 ) → P(-1) Solution: T Expressions with variables are not propositions and therefore do not have truth values. For example, P( 3 ) ∧ P(y) P( x ) → P(y) When used with quantifiers (to be introduced next), these expressions (propositional functions) become propositions.

10. Quantifiers We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English words including all and some: “All men are Mortal.” “Some cats do not have fur.” The two most important quantifiers are: Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol:  Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol:  We write as in  x P(x) and  x P(x).  x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for every x in the domain.  x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for some x in the domain. The quantifiers are said to bind the variable x in these expressions. Charles Peirce (1839-1914)

11. Universal Quantifier  x P(x) is read as “For all x, P(x)” or “For every x, P(x)” Examples: 1) If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then  x P(x) is false. 2) If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the positive integers, then  x P(x) is true. 3) If P(x) denotes “x is even ” and U is the integers, then  x P(x) is false. 4) Let P(x) be the statement ““x + 1 > x ”. Because P(x) is true for all real numbers x, the quantification  x P(x) is true.

12. Existential Quantifier  x P(x) is read as “For some x, P(x)”, or as “There is an element x in the domain such that P(x),” or “For at least one x, P(x).” Examples: 1. If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then  x P(x) is true. It is also true if U is the positive integers. 2. If P(x) denotes “x < 0” and U is the positive integers, then  x P(x) is false. 3. If P(x) denotes “x is even ” and U is the integers, then  x P(x) is true.

13. Existential Quantifier Examples: 1. Let P(x) be the statement “x > 3 ”. Because “x > 3 ” is sometimes true, e.g. when x = 4 —the existing quantification of P(x), which is  x P(x), is true.

14. Uniqueness Quantifier (optional)  !x P(x) means that P( x ) is true for one and only one x in the universe of discourse. This is commonly expressed in English in the following equivalent ways: “There is a unique x such that P( x ).” “There is one and only one x such that P( x )” Examples: 1. If P(x) denotes “x + 1 = 0” and U is the integers, then  !x P(x) is true. 2. But if P(x) denotes “x > 0,” then  !x P(x) is false. The uniqueness quantifier is not really needed as the restriction that there is a unique x such that P(x) can be expressed as:  x (P(x) ∧  y (P(y) → y =x))

15. Thinking about Quantifiers When the domain of discourse is finite, we can think of quantification as looping through the elements of the domain. To evaluate  x P(x) loop through all x in the domain. If at every step P(x) is true, then  x P(x) is true. If at a step P(x) is false, then  x P(x) is false and the loop terminates. To evaluate  x P(x) loop through all x in the domain. If at some step, P(x) is true, then  x P(x) is true and the loop terminates. If the loop ends without finding an x for which P(x) is true, then  x P(x) is false. Even if the domains are infinite, we can still think of the quantifiers this fashion, but the loops will not terminate in some cases.

16. Properties of Quantifiers The truth value of  x P(x) and  x P(x) depend on both the propositional function P(x) and on the domain U. Examples: 1. If U is the positive integers and P(x) is the statement “x < 2 ”, then  x P(x) is true, but  x P(x) is false. 2. If U is the negative integers and P(x) is the statement “x < 2 ”, then both  x P(x) and  x P(x) are true. 3. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement “x > 2 ”, then both  x P(x) and  x P(x) are true. But if P(x) is the statement “x < 2 ”, then both  x P(x) and  x P(x) are false.

17. Translating from English to Logic Example 1 : Translate the following sentence into predicate logic: “Every student in this class has taken a course in Java.” Solution: First decide on the domain U. Solution 1 : If U is all students in this class, define a propositional function J(x) denoting “x has taken a course in Java” and translate as  x J(x). Solution 2 : But if U is all people, also define a propositional function S(x) denoting “x is a student in this class” and translate as  x (S(x)→ J(x)).  x (S(x) ∧ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?

18. Translating from English to Logic Example 2: Translate the following sentence into predicate logic: “Some student in this class has taken a course in Java.” Solution: First decide on the domain U. Solution 1 : If U is all students in this class, translate as  x J(x) Solution 1 : But if U is all people, then translate as  x (S(x) ∧ J(x))  x (S(x)→ J(x)) is not correct. What does it mean?

19. Returning to the Socrates Example Introduce the propositional functions Man(x) denoting “x is a man” and Mortal(x) denoting “x is mortal.” Specify the domain as all people. The two premises are: The conclusion is: Later we will show how to prove that the conclusion follows from the premises.

20. Equivalences in Predicate Logic Statements involving predicates and quantifiers are logically equivalent if and only if they have the same truth value for every predicate substituted into these statements and for every domain of discourse used for the variables in the expressions. The notation S ≡T indicates that S and T are logically equivalent. Example:  x ¬¬S(x) ≡  x S(x)  x (P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ≡  x P(x)) ∧  x Q(x)

21. Thinking about Quantifiers as Conjunctions and Disjunctions If the domain is finite, a universally quantified proposition is equivalent to a conjunction of propositions without quantifiers and an existentially quantified proposition is equivalent to a disjunction of propositions without quantifiers. If U consists of the integers 1, 2, and 3 : Even if the domains are infinite, you can still think of the quantifiers in this fashion, but the equivalent expressions without quantifiers will be infinitely long.

22. Precedence of Quantifiers The quantifiers  and  have higher precedence than all the logical operators. For example,  x P(x) ∨ Q(x) means (  x P(x))∨ Q(x)  x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) means something different. Unfortunately, often people write  x P(x) ∨ Q(x) when they mean  x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)).

23. Negating Quantified Expressions Consider  x J(x) “Every student in your class has taken a course in Java.” Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in calculus” and the domain is students in your class. Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case that every student in your class has taken Java.” This implies that “There is a student in your class who has not taken calculus.” Symbolically ¬  x J(x) and  x ¬J(x) are equivalent

24. Negating Quantified Expressions (continued) Now Consider  x J(x) “There is a student in this class who has taken a course in Java.” Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Java.” Negating the original statement gives “It is not the case that there is a student in this class who has taken Java.” This implies that “Every student in this class has not taken Java” Symbolically ¬  x J(x) and  x ¬J(x) are equivalent

25. Negating Quantified Expressions (continued) “Every student in your class has taken a course in calculus.” Where  x P(x) expresses this statement. Where P(x) is the statement “ x has taken a course in calculus.” Then, the existential quantification of the negation of the original propositional function is  x ¬P(x) So logical equivalence of this example is ¬  x P(x) ≡  x ¬P(x)

26. De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers The rules for negating quantifiers are: The reasoning in the table shows that: These are important. You will use these.

27. Translation from English to Logical Expression Examples: 1. “Some student in this class has visited Mexico.” Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Mexico” and S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and U be all people.  x (S(x) ∧ M(x)) 2. “Every student in this class has visited Canada or Mexico.” Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Canada.”  x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))

28. System Specification Example Predicate logic is used for specifying properties that systems must satisfy. For example, translate into predicate logic: “Every mail message larger than one megabyte will be compressed.” “If a user is active, at least one network link will be available.” Decide on predicates and domains (left implicit here) for the variables: Let L(m, y) be “Mail message m is larger than y megabytes.” Let C(m) denote “Mail message m will be compressed.” Let A(u) represent “User u is active.” Let S(n, x) represent “Network link n is in state x. Now we have:

29. Lewis Carroll Example The first two are called premises and the third is called the conclusion. 1. “All lions are fierce.” 2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.” 3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.” Here is one way to translate these statements to predicate logic. Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the propositional functions “x is a lion,” “x is fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,” respectively. 1.  x (P(x)→ Q(x)) 2.  x (P(x) ∧ ¬R(x)) 3.  x (Q(x) ∧ ¬R(x)) Later we will see how to prove that the conclusion follows from the premises. Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (AKA Lewis Caroll) (1832-1898)

30. Section 1.5

31. Section Summary Nested Quantifiers Order of Quantifiers Translating Mathematical Statements into Statements involving Nested Quantifiers. Translating from Nested Quantifiers into English Translated English Sentences into Logical Expressions. Negating Nested Quantifiers.

32. Nested Quantifiers Nested quantifiers are often necessary to express the meaning of sentences in English as well as important concepts in computer science and mathematics. Example: “Every real number has an inverse” is  x  y(x + y = 0) where the domains of x and y are the real numbers. We can also think of nested propositional functions:  x  y(x + y = 0) can be viewed as  x Q(x) where Q(x) is  y P(x, y) where P(x, y) is (x + y = 0)

33. Thinking of Nested Quantification Nested Loops To see if  x  yP (x,y) is true, loop through the values of x : At each step, loop through the values for y. If for some pair of x and y, P(x,y) is false, then  x  yP(x,y) is false and both the outer and inner loop terminate.  x  y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x.

34. Thinking of Nested Quantification Nested Loops To see if  x  yP(x,y) is true, loop through the values of x: At each step, loop through the values for y. The inner loop ends when a pair x and y is found such that P(x, y) is true. If no y is found such that P(x, y) is true the outer loop terminates as  x  yP(x,y) has been shown to be false.  x  y P(x,y) is true if the outer loop ends after stepping through each x. If the domains of the variables are infinite, then this process can not actually be carried out.

35. Order of Quantifiers Examples: 1. Let P(x,y) be the statement “ x + y = y + x.” Assume that U is the real numbers. Then  x  yP(x,y) and  y  xP(x,y) have the same truth value. 2. Let Q(x,y) be the statement “ x + y = 0.” Assume that U is the real numbers. Then  x  yQ(x,y) is true, but  y  xQ(x,y) is false.

36. Questions on Order of Quantifiers Example 1 : Let U be the real numbers, Define P(x,y) : x ∙ y = 0 What is the truth value of the following: 1.  x  yP(x,y) Answer: False 2.  x  yP(x,y) Answer: True 3.  x  y P(x,y) Answer: True 4.  x  y P(x,y) Answer: True

37. Questions on Order of Quantifiers Example 2 : Let U be the real numbers, Define P(x,y) : x / y = 1 What is the truth value of the following: 1.  x  yP(x,y) Answer: False 2.  x  yP(x,y) Answer: False 3.  x  y P(x,y) Answer: False 4.  x  y P(x,y) Answer: True

38. Quantifications of Two Variables StatementWhen True?When False P(x,y) is true for every pair x,y. There is a pair x, y for which P(x,y) is false. For every x there is a y for which P(x,y) is true. There is an x such that P(x,y) is false for every y. There is an x for which P(x,y) is true for every y. For every x there is a y for which P(x,y) is false. There is a pair x, y for which P(x,y) is true. P(x,y) is false for every pair x,y

39. Translating Mathematical Statements into Predicate Logic Example : Translate the statement The sum of two positive integers is always positive” into a logical expression. Solution: 1. Rewrite the statement to make the implied quantifiers and domains explicit: “For every two integers, if these integers are both positive, then the sum of these integers is positive.” 2. Introduce the variables x and y, and specify the domain, to obtain: “For all positive integers x and y, x + y is positive.” 3. The result is:  x  y (( x > 0)∧ ( y > 0)→ ( x + y > 0)) where the domain of both variables consists of all integers

40. Translating Nested Quantifiers into English Example : Translate the statement  x (C(x )∨  y (C(y ) ∧ F(x, y))) where C(x) is “x has a computer,” and F(x,y) is “x and y are friends,” and the domain for both x and y consists of all students in your school. Solution: Every student in your school has a computer or has a friend who has a computer.

41. Some Questions about Quantifiers (optional) Can you distribute quantifiers over logical connectives? Is this a valid equivalence? Solution: Yes! The left and the right side will always have the same truth value no matter what propositional functions are denoted by P(x) and Q(x). Is this a valid equivalence? Solution: No! The left and the right side may have different truth values. Pick “x is a fish” for P(x) and “x has scales” for Q(x) with the domain of discourse being all animals. Then the left side is false, because there are some fish that do not have scales. But the right side is true since not all animals are fish.