1. Chapter 10 Cognitive Linguistics Introduction to Linguistics Instructor: Cheng Jun School of Foreign Languages, Southwest University

2. Part 1: Introduction Part 2: Categorization and Categories Part 3: Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy Part 4: Iconicity Part 5: Grammaticalization

3. Topic 1: Does the way we look at the world have something to do with the structure of the language? If yes, how? Topic 2: How can you express your anger or happiness? Use as many expressions as possible.

4.  Questions to think about further: › What are behind those expressions used for your anger or happiness? › Embodiment › Metaphor › Metonymy › Figure of speech › Rhetoric

5. 1. What is cognitive linguistics 2. The historical development of CL 3. Major topics in CL

6.  CL is an approach to language that is based on experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.

7.  Time  Journal of Cognitive Linguistics  The International Cognitive Linguistics Association  Important scholars › Lakoff › Langacker › Talmy › Fauconnier › Croft › Fillmore › Goldberg

8.  The structural characteristics of natural language categorization › Prototype › Metaphor › mental imagery › cognitive models  The functional principles of linguistic organization › iconicity and naturalness  The conceptual interface between syntax and semantics  The experiential and pragmatic background of language-in-use  The relationship between language and thought

9.  What is category? › Category refers to a general class of ideas, terms, or things that mark divisions or coordinations within a conceptual domain.  Categorization › Categorization refers to the mental process of classification, which is one of the important capabilities of the human mind.

10.  Date back to Aristotle  Basic Assumptions of the Classical Theory of Categorization › Categories are defined by a limited set of necessary and sufficient conditions (these conditions are regarded as features). › Features are binary. › Categories have clear boundaries. › All members of a category have equal status  Problems of the Classical Theory of Categorization

11. What is Prototype?  Prototype refers to the best example of a category.  Family resemblance  Natural categories are organized according to prototype.  Members of a category therefore differ in their prototypicality, or degree to which they are prototypical.

12.  Prototype theory is useful for explaining how people deal with untypical examples of a category.  It can explain how people deal with damaged examples.  In addition, prototype theory can work for actions as well as objects.

13.  Superordinate Level  Subordinate Level  Basic level  Basic-level categories are basic in three respects › Perception: Overall perceived shape; single mental image; fast identification. › Communication: Shortest, most commonly used and contextually neutral words, first learned by children and first to enter the lexicon. › Knowledge organization: Most attributes of category members are stored at this level.

14.  Traditional view of Metaphor › A figure of speech › For rhetorical purpose › A property of words › Comparison  Cognitive view of Metaphor › A cognitive process in which one cognitive category, the source, provides mental access to another cognitive category › A cognitive instrument or tool for conceptualization of abstract categories › Ubiquity of metaphor in language › Conceptual › Systematical

15.  Look how far we’ve come.  We’ll just have to go our separate ways.  We can’t turn back now.  Our marriage is on the rocks.  We’ve gotten off the track.  This relationship is foundering

16.  There are too many facts here for me to digest them all.  I just can’t swallow that claim.  That’s food for thought.  He devoured the book.

17.  Your claims are indefensible.  They attacked every weak point in our argument.  I’ve never won an argument with him.  You disagree? Okay, shoot!  If you use that strategy, he’ll wipe you out.  He shot down all of my arguments.

18.  Classical view of Metonymy › A figure of speech › Substitution › Rhetorical purpose › A departure from the linguistic norm Examples › Have you ever read Shakespeare? › Wary wants Burgundy (red or white wine from the Burgundy area of France). › The crown objects to the proposal. › I want my love to be with me all the time

19.  A cognitive tool as metaphor for categorization  Ubiquity in language  Stand-for relationship Examples THE PRODUCER FOR THE PRODUCT

20.  THE PRODUCER FOR THE PRODUCT (THE AUTHER FOR THE WORK) › She loves Picasso. › Does he have any Hemingway in his collection? › I’m reading Mark Twain.  THE PLACE FOR THE EVENT › America doesn’t want another Pearl Harbor. › Watergate changed American politics.

21.  Definition › Iconicity refers to a principle of language organization, according to which, the linguistic elements are structured in some way that reflects the structure of the world and human experience.

22.  Iconicity of order refers to the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction. Examples › Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered) › He opened the bottle and poured himself a glass of wine. › *He poured himself a glass of wine and opened the bottle. › He jumped onto his horse and rode out into the sunset. › *He rode out into the sunset and jumped onto his horse.

23.  Iconicity of distance accounts for the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance.  Elements which have a close relationship must be placed close together.  Conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic (i.e. structural) distance, not merely physical distance.

24.  I killed the chicken.  I caused the chicken to die.  a. the famous delicious Italian pepperoni pizza  b. *the Italian delicious famous pepperoni pizza  c. *the famous pepperoni delicious Italian pizza  d.*the pepperoni delicious famous Italian pizza

25.  In the realm of syntax, conceptual and structural complexity tends to go hand in hand. Any modification or elaboration of one meaning-bearing grammatical element by another (as in the process of subordination) leads to the increase of both types of complexity.

26.  a. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met her.  b. On the Brighten train from Victoria I met the girl from next door.  c. Just imagine! Last night on the Brighten train from Victoria I met this fair- haired, fragile, just unbelievably beautiful creature.

27.  Definition › Grammaticalization refers to the process whereby an independent word is shifted to the status of a grammatical element. › Reduction in phonological form › “Bleaching” of meaning

28.  a. Susan’s going to London next month.  b. She’s going to London to work at our office.  c. She’s going to work at our office.  d. You’re going to like her.  e. You’re gonna like her.  f. You gonna like her. (non-standard)

29.  Grammaticalization brings about typical changes in the meanings and distribution of forms.  Another characteristic of grammaticalized form is that the constraints on their grammatical uses tend to reflect their lexical histories.  Another typical outcome of grammaticalization is the development of different historical levels of nearly equivalent forms. As new ways of expressing functions appear, the older ones are often not discarded, but remain as alternatives.

30.  THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION › Washington is negotiating with Beijing. › Wall Street is in a panic. › Hollywood is putting out terrible movies.  THE CONTROLLER FOR THE CONTROLLED › Nixon bombed Hanoi. › Ozawa gave a terrible concert last night.  AN OBJECT USED FOR THE USER › The sax has the flu today. › We need a better glove at the third base.

31.  Metaphor involves a mapping across different conceptual or cognitive domains while metonymy is a mapping within one conceptual domain  In metonymy, one category within a domain is taken as standing for another category in the same domain  The main function of a metonymic expression is to activate one cognitive category by referring to another category within the same domain, and by doing that, to highlight the first category or the subdomain to which it belongs.

32.  Both are regarded as being conceptual in nature  Both can be conventionalized (i.e. automatic, unconscious, effortless and generally established as a model of thinking  Both are means of extending the resources of a language  Both can be explained as mapping processes

33.  Concluding remarks of the course  Assignments › Exercises