1. COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

2. Iteration structures (loops) There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on. Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more complicated execution paths. A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times and the following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages:

4. C++ loops Loop TypeDescription while loopRepeats a statement or group of statements until a given condition is false. It tests the condition before executing the loop body. for loopExecute a sequence of statements multiple times. do...while loopLike a while statement, except that it tests the condition at the end of the loop body C++ programming language provides following types of loop to handle looping requirements.

5. For loops A for loop is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to execute a specific number of times. The syntax of a for loop in C++ is: for ( init; condition; increment ) { statement(s); }

6. For loops Here is the flow of control in a for loop: 1. The init step is executed first, and only once. This step allows you to declare and initialize any loop control variables. You are not required to put a statement here, as long as a semicolon appears. 2. Next, the condition is evaluated. If it is true, the body of the loop is executed. If it is false, the body of the loop does not execute and flow of control jumps to the next statement just after the for loop.

7. For loops 3. After the body of the for loop executes, the flow of control jumps back up to the increment statement. This statement allows you to update any loop control variables. This statement can be left blank, as long as a semicolon appears after the condition. 4. The condition is now evaluated again. If it is true, the loop executes and the process repeats itself (body of loop, then increment step, and then again condition). After the condition becomes false, the for loop terminates.

8. For loop flow diagram

9. Example: #include using namespace std; int main () { for( int a = 10; a < 20; a++ ) { cout << "value of a: " << a << endl; } return 0; } value of a: 10 value of a: 11 value of a: 12 value of a: 13 value of a: 14 value of a: 15 value of a: 16 value of a: 17 value of a: 18 value of a: 19

10. For loop The initialization and increasment fields are optional. They can remain empty, but in all cases the semicolon signs between them must be written. For example we could write: for (;n<10;) if we wanted to specify no initialization and no increase; or for (;n<10;n++) if we wanted to include an increase field but no initialization (maybe because the variable was already initialized before).

11. While loop A while loop statement repeatedly executes a target statement as long as a given condition is true. The syntax of a while loop is: while(condition) { statement(s); } Here statement(s) may be a single statement or a block of statements. The condition may be any expression. The loop iterates while the condition is true. When the condition becomes false, program control passes to the line immediately following the loop.

12. While loop flow diagram

13. While loop Here the key point of the while loop is that the loop might not ever run. When the condition is tested and the result is false, the loop body will be skipped and the first statement after the while loop will be executed.

14. Example: value of a: 10 value of a: 11 value of a: 12 value of a: 13 value of a: 14 value of a: 15 value of a: 16 value of a: 17 value of a: 18 value of a: 19 #include using namespace std; int main () { // Local variable declaration: int a = 10; // while loop execution while( a < 20 ) { cout << "value of a: " << a << endl; a++; } return 0; }

15. do ….. While loop Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop, the do...while loop checks its condition at the bottom of the loop. A do...while loop is similar to a while loop, except that a do...while loop is guaranteed to execute at least one time. The syntax of a do...while loop is: do { statement(s); }while( condition ); Notice that the conditional expression appears at the end of the loop, so the statement(s) in the loop execute once before the condition is tested. If the condition is true, the flow of control jumps back up to do, and the statement(s) in the loop execute again. This process repeats until the given condition becomes false.

16. do ….while loop flow diagram

17. Example: #include using namespace std; int main () { // Local variable declaration: int a = 10; // do loop execution do { cout << "value of a: " << a << endl; a = a + 1; } while( a < 20 ); return 0; } value of a: 10 value of a: 11 value of a: 12 value of a: 13 value of a: 14 value of a: 15 value of a: 16 value of a: 17 value of a: 18 value of a: 19

18. Nested loops A loop can be nested inside of another loop. C++ allows at least 256 levels of nesting. #include using namespace std; int main() { int size; cout << "How large a triangle do you want? "; cin >> size; for (int r = 1; r <= size; r++) { for (int c = 1; c <= r; c++) { cout << "*"; } cout << endl; } return 0; } The result when the entered number is 7: * ** *** **** ***** ****** *******