1. Commas An end mark is used to separate complete thoughts. A comma is used to separate words or groups of words within a complete thought. Use commas to separate items in a series. Words, phrases, and clauses in a series separated by commas to show the reader where one item in the series ends and the next begins.

2. Commas Words in a series Hammock, canoe, and moccasin are three of the words that English-speaking people owe to Native Americans. (nouns) Always stop, look, and listen before crossing railroad tracks. (verbs) In the morning, the lake looked cold, gray, and clam. (adjectives)

3. Commas Phrases in a series Tightening the spokes, checking the tire pressure, and oiling the gears, Carlos prepared his bike for the race. (participial phrases) We found seaweed in the water, on the sand, under the rocks, and later in our shoes. (prepositional phrases) Clearing the table, washing the dishes, and putting everything always took almost an hour. (gerund phrases)

4. Commas Clauses in a series We didn’t know where we were going, how we would get there, or when we would arrive. (subordinate clauses) The lights dimmed, the curtain rose, and the orchestra began to play. (short independent clauses) Note: always be sure that there are at least three items in a series; two items do not need a comma between them.

5. Commas Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives that come before a noun. Ex. An Arabian horse is a fast, beautiful animal. Many ranchers depended on the small, tough, sure-footed mustang.

6. Commas Compound Sentences Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet when it joins independent clauses. Ex. The musical comedy started as an American musical form, and its popularity has spread throughout the world. A comma is always used before nor, for, so, or yet joining independent clauses. Ex. We will not give up, nor will we fail. Ex. Everyone seemed excited, for it was time to begin.

7. Commas Interrupters Use commas to set off an expression that interrupts a sentence. Two commas are needed if the expression to be set off comes in the middle of the sentence. One comma is needed if the expression comes first or last. Ex. My favorite gospel singers, BeBe and CeCe Winans, were on TV last night. Ex. Yes, I’ll call back later. Ex. How did you do in karate class today, Kami.

8. Commas Interrupters Use commas to set off a nonessential participial phrase or a nonessential subordinate clause. A nonessential phrase or clause add information that the reader doesn’t need to understand the meaning of the sentence. Ex. Harvard College, founded in 1636, is the oldest college in the United States.

9. Commas Interrupters Use commas to set off an appositive or an appositive phrase that is nonessential. Ex. My best friend, Nancy, is studying ballet. Ex. Nancy, my best friend, has won a dance scholarship.

10. Commas Interrupters Use commas to set off words used in direct address. Ex. Mrs. Clarkson, this package is addressed to you. Use commas to set off a parenthetical expression. Ex. The president said, of course, that he was deeply disappointed.

11. Commonly Used Parenthetical Expression after all generally speaking nevertheless at any rate on the other hand of course by the way I believe (hope, suppose, think) on the contrary for example however for instance in my opinion therefore

12. Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses Use a comma after certain introductory elements. Use a comma after yes, no, or any mild exclamation such as well or why at the beginning of a sentence. Ex. Yes, I understand the problem Ex. Well, I think we should ask for help.

13. Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses Use a comma after an introductory prepositional phrase if the phrase is long or if two or more phrases appear together. Ex. At the bottom of the card for Drew, Julie wrote, “Happy Birthday, Kiddo.” Use a comma after a verbal phrase that introduces a sentence. Ex. Forced onto the sidelines by a sprained ankle, Carlos was restless and unhappy.

14. Introductory Words, Phrases, and Clauses Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause. Ex. When March came, the snow fort began to melt and break down.

15. Conventional Situations Use commas in certain conventional situations. Use commas to separate items in dates and addresses. Ex. The delegates to the Constitutional Convention signed the Constitution on September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter. Ex. Dear Aunt Margaret, Ex. Sincerely yours,