1. Copyright Prentice-Hall Chapter 17 Processing of Metal Powders

2. Parts Made by Powder-Metallurgy (a) Examples of typical parts made by powder-metallurgy processes. (b) Upper trip lever for a commercial sprinkler made by P/M. This part is made of an unleaded brass alloy; it replaces a die-cast part with a 60% savings. (c) Main-bearing metal-powder caps for 3.8 and 3.1 liter General Motors automotive engines. Source: (a) and (b) Reproduced with permission from Success Stories on P/M Parts, 1998. Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, New Jersey, 1998. (c) Courtesy of Zenith Sintered Products, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. (a) (b) (c)

3. Steps in Making Powder-Metallurgy Parts Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.

4. Particle Shapes in Metal Powders Particle shapes in metal powders, and the processes by which they are produced. Iron powders are produced by many of these processes.

5. Powder Particles (a) Scanning-electron-microscopy photograph of iron-powder particles made by atomization. (b) Nickel-based superalloy (Udimet 700) powder particles made by the rotating electrode process. Source: Courtesy of P.G. Nash, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. (a)(b)

6. Methods of Metal-Powder Production by Atomization Figure Methods of metal- powder production by atomization: (a) gas atomization; (b) water atomization; (c) atomization with a rotating consumable electrode; and (d) centrifugal atomization with a spinning disk or cup.

7. Mechanical Comminution to Obtain Fine Particles Methods of mechanical comminution to obtain fine particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, and (c) hammer milling.

8. Mechanical Alloying Mechanical alloying of nickel particles with dispersed smaller particles. As nickel particles are flattened between the two balls, the second smaller phase is impresses into the nickel surface and eventually is dispersed throughout the particle due to successive flattening, fracture, and welding events.

9. Bowl Geometries in Blending Metal Powders (e) (a) through (d) Some common bowl geometries for mixing or blending powders. (e) A mixer suitable for blending metal powders. Since metal powders are abrasive, mixers rely on the rotation or tumbling of enclosed geometries as opposed to using aggressive agitators. Source: Courtesy of Gardner Mixers, Inc.

10. Compaction (a) Compaction of metal powder to form a bushing. The pressed-powder part is called green compact. (b) Typical tool and die set for compacting a spur gear. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.

11. Density as a Function of Pressure and the Effects of Density on Other Properties (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting pressure. Density greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of P/M parts. (b) Effect of density on tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. Source: (a) After F. V. Lenel, (b) IACS: International Annealed Copper Standard (for electrical conductivity).

12. Density Variation in Compacting Metal Powders Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a) and (c) single- action press; (b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density from pressing with two punches with separate movements when compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in a single-action press. Source: After P. Duwez and L. Zwell.

13. Compacting Pressures for Various Powders

14. Cold Isostatic Pressing Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing, as applied to forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container around a solid-core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the assembly inside a high-pressure chamber. Source: Reprinted with permission from R. M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science, Metal Powder Industries Federation, Princeton, NJ; 1984.

15. Capabilities Available from P/M Operations Capabilities, with respect to part size and shape complexity, available form various P/M operations. P/F means powder forging. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.

16. Hot Isostatic Pressing Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and temperature variation versus time are shown in the diagram.

17. Valve Lifter for Diesel Engines A valve lifter for heavy-duty diesel engines produced form a hot-isostatic-pressed carbide cap on a steel shaft. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.

18. Powder Rolling Schematic illustration of powder rolling.

19. Spray Deposition Spray deposition (Osprey Process) in which molten metal is sprayed over a rotating mandrel to produce seamless tubing and pipe.

20. Sintering Time and Temperature for Metals

21. Mechanisms for Sintering Metal Powders Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid- state material transport; and (b) vapor-phase material transport. R = particle radius, r = neck radius, and p = neck-profile radius.

22. Mechanical Properties of P/M Materials

23. Comparison of Properties of Wrought and Equivalent P/M Metals

24. Mechanical Property Comparisons for Titanium Alloy

25. Design Considerations for P/M The shape of the compact must be kept as simple and uniform as possible. Provision must be made for ejection of the green compact without damaging the compact. P/M parts should be made with the widest acceptable tolerances to maximize tool life. Part walls should not be less than 1.5 mm thick; thinner walls can be achieved on small parts; walls with length-to-thickness ratios above 8:1 are difficult to press. Steps in parts can be produced if they are simple and their size doesn’t exceed 15% of the overall part length. Letters can be pressed if oriented perpendicular to the pressing direction. Raised letters are more susceptible to damage in the green stage and prevent stacking. Flanges or overhangs can be produced by a step in the die. A true radius cannot be pressed; instead use a chamfer. Dimensional tolerances are on the order of ±0.05 to 0.1 mm. Tolerances improve significantly with additional operations such as sizing, machining and grinding.

26. Poor and Good Designs of P/M Parts Examples of P/M parts showing poor and good designs. Note that sharp radii and reentry corners should be avoided and that threads and transverse holes have to be produced separately by additional machining operations. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.

27. Design Features for Use with Unsupported Flanges or Grooves (a) Design features for use with unsupported flanges. (b) Design features for use with grooves. Source: Courtesy of Metal Powder Industries Federation.

28. Use of Smooth Transitions in Molds The use of smooth transitions in molds for powder-injection molding to ensure uniform metal-powder distribution throughout a part.