1. A critcal discussion of the concept of research Jens-Christian Smeby and Berit Karseth November 21, 2007

2. Issue of knowledge Most fundamental Most theorised Least researched Perspectives on knowledge often implicit HE’studies often a “narrow” perspective on knowledge and learning

3. Key questions What is knowledge? What counts as valid knowledge? Theory and practice What are the different types and forms of knowledge?

4. What is knowledge? Platon: Justified True Beliefs

5. Merton CUDOS Communalism entails that scientific results are the common property of the entire scientific community. Universalism means that all scientists can contribute to science regardless of race, nationality, culture, or gender. Disinterestedness according to which scientists should not present their results entangled with their personal beliefs or activism for a cause. Scientists should have an arms length attitude towards their findings. Originality The claims by researchers must be novel and add something to our knowledge and understanding. Scepticism means that scientific claims must be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted.

6. Theory and practice Ryle: –Knowing that –Knowing how Polanyi: The tacit dimensions –“we know more than we can say” Validity claims: –It works –Why, can the procedure be justified?

7. Organisation of knowledge Double meaning of discipline Disciplinary differences: –Hard – soft (paradigmatic status) –Pure – applied –Individual – teams (mutual dependency) –Urban – rural

8. Frascati manual –Basic research, defined as “experimental or theoretical work undertaken primarily to acquire new knowledge of the underlying foundations of phenomena and observable facts, without any particular application or use in view (ibid. p. 77). –Applied research defined as “original investigation undertaken in order to acquire new knowledge. It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective” (ibid.p.78). –Experimental development “is systematic work, drawing on knowledge gained from research and practical experience, that is directed to producing new materials, products and devices; to installing new processes, systems and services; or to improving substantially those already produced or installed” (ibid. p. 79) ( OECD 2002 Frascati Manual. Proposed Standard Practice for Surveys on Research and Experimental Development. OECD)

9. Pasteur’s Quadrant (Stokes, D. E (1997) Pasteur’s Quadrant. Washington D.C. Brookings Institution Press. ) Quest for Fundamental understanding ? Considerations of use? NoYes Pure basic research (Bohr) Use-inspired basic research (Pasteur) NoPure applied research (Edison)

10. Over the coming years, it is very likely that education policy-makers and educators increasingly will demand more research and information and that especially “use- inspired basic research” will be high in demand. A key issue is whether education researchers in general have strong incentives to carry out use-inspired basic research. Compared to other major sectors such as health and engineering where use-inspired basic research is heavily rewarded, the reward mechanisms in education sector have been less focused on such research (OECD 2003, Knowledge Management. New Challenges for Educational Research. OECD p. 12)

11. The evidence movement “Evidence-based” is one of the most used adjectives in health care today, indicating the need to inform patient treatment and care by scientific evidence. It was previously applied almost exclusively to medicine in the term “evidence-based medicine”, but terms like “evidence-based practice” (EBP) and “evidence- based nursing” are becoming more widespread, with an emphasis on that nursing practice ought to be based on reliable and valid proof for the effects of nursing care.

12. OECD’s ambition of educational R&D – (preliminary) User-inspired basic research –Users defined as policymakers and practitioners Empirical research, need of researchers with quantitative skills Systematic accumulation of knowledge Aiming at producing evidence From independent self regulating researchers to clusters of researcher The development of a national R&D strategy Recruitment of a new generation researchers and capacity building

13. Knowledge as a utility: Daniel Bell: Post-industrial society Axial principle of development Knowledge and technology the driving force of development not labour Traditional “positivistic” understanding of knowledge

14. Mode 1 and 2 Pure science – context of application Disciplinary- transdisciplinary Universities – heterogeneous teams Objective – reflexive Peers – multiple actors

15. Re-thinking science Knowledge produced in the context of application Context speaks back Social robust knowledge Agora

16. Reflexive communication: Reflexive relation to knowledge Risk society: reflexivity as a critical force Reflexive communication among many voices Agora: occupied by a highly educated well education population Citizenship

17. Discussion: Researching higher education –Basic research? Examples –Applied research? Examples –Use-inspired basic research? Examples –Mode 2? Examples