2. Cantril’s (1940) study, The Invasion from Mars: A Study in the Psychology of Panic On October 30, 1938, Orson Welles and a group of actors, in a New York studio of Colombia Broadcasting System, (broadcast an adaptation of H. G. Wells’s War of the Worlds), broadcast were presented as a series of simulated news bulletins

3. Six million Americans tuned in to this dramatization of a science fiction novel about a Martian invasion (text included in Cantril, 1940). Over 1 million of them responded with severe fright or panic. radio had triggered a mass effect, the broadcast caused fear, fear caused panic, and panic led to verifiable reactions

4. It is estimated that of the 6 million people who heard the broadcast, 1.7 million thought it was the news, not a play, while a further 1.2 million were frightened. A few even bought train tickets or drove off in the opposite direction to New York, the supposed epicentre of the alien invasion (http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/10/invasion-from- mars-anatomy-of-panic.php)http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/10/invasion-from- mars-anatomy-of-panic.php

5. Does public opinion influence and shape a government’s policies? OR Does the government influences and shape the form of public opinion on politics?

6. Two assumptions: 1-elites manipulates public opinion for their interest (top-down approach, realist - driven by state interest) OR 2-leaders follow masses (bottom-up approach)

7. Democratic-pluralist model: no one set of interests group dominate, media and public is independent from political influence/citizens capable to consume information from media in order to form their own independent opinion

8. Media is used to control public opinion and instrument for national leadership especially in nondemocratic states CNN effect (US based Cable News Network): independent news media make pressure policy makers to pursue a particular course of action during crisis raised by journalists

9. CNN by focusing on certain conflicts and problems make pressure on politicians to respond some foreign problems and not others so it is harmful for reasoned policy making!!

12. Media has powerful role in agenda setting/how to frame the story (framing is the act of selecting some events and promote particular interpretation to through memorable and emotionally charged issues to addresses political culture of public/addresses cognition of individuals) Government officials/elites control framing

13. Framing: highly politicized and biased representation of any issue Agenda setting/framing: shaping public opinion Government control its own response to a foreign event/framing and explaining the event, if media define event government might lose control of event

14. Joint agenda setting between government and media/but media is driven by policy makers rather than vice-versa However in some cases media take control and mobilize public against government, for instance Russian media and interests group forced Russian government to end war in Chechnya!

15. Radio des Mille Collines (RTLM), in Rwanda the government used media, especially radio, as a tool in the genocide. radio is a far more efficient means of reaching large numbers of people, and was much more significant as a catalyst

16. The radio, long established as the voice of government, defined the enemy as the Tutsis, and inspired an obligation by Hutus to protect themselves and their families.

17. Alfred Kiruhura, 29, an illiterate farmer from eastern Rwanda, await trial for genocide. He states: “I did not believe the Tutsis were coming to kill us, but when the government radio continued to broadcast that they were coming to take our land, were coming to kill the Hutus—when this was repeated over and over—I began to feel some kind of fear”

18. Why does a dog wag its tail? Because a dog is smarter than its tail. If the tail was smarter, the tail would wag the dog.

19. Washington spin doctor or “Mr. Fix It” (Robert De Niro) distracts the electorate from a presidential sex scandal by hiring a Hollywood producer (Dustin Hoffman) to create a fake war.