1. The Similarities Between Operant Conditioning and Natural Selection
Chapter 12
The Similarities Between Operant Conditioning and Natural Selection

2. Sources of Behavioral Variation
In evolution by natural selection, the 2 principle sources of variation are 1) Genetic Mutations and 2) Recombinations of Genes during Sexual Reproduction
The expressions of these new genetic forms in both structures and behaviors provide the raw materials for natural selection
There are two main sources of behavioral variation:
1) Induced Variation
2) Behavioral Variability

3. Induced Variation Refers to behaviors generated by the situation
The particular behaviors that are induced depend on the species of the individual, his or her motivational state and past history, and the attributes of the situation
Behaviors can be induced by internal events such as the depletion of nutrients or external events such as the presence of food, water, mates, etc.
Variation in behavior can also be induced by the withholding or reduction in the level of reward
Not giving a reward causes the individual to engage in different behaviors until they receive the reward again
Therefore, by manipulating the situation you can induce different responses from individuals

4. Behavioral Variability
Even in an unchanging environment, individuals do not perform actions exactly the same way every time they have the opportunity to perform them
Every day each one of us experiences this.
For example, it is rare that each time you brush your teeth you apply the same exact amount of toothpaste and brush each tooth the same exact way every morning and night
There are usually some differences even if very small that occur each time you perform the same behavior

5. Function of Behavioral Variation in Operant Conditioning
Induced Variation = produces patterns of behavior that have been useful to the subject in the same or similar situation in obtaining reinforcement
Once the subject comes to perform the correct action, Behavioral Variability in that performance increases the chances that more efficient versions of the action will be selected through the process of hill-climbing

6. Selection in Operant Conditioning
The selection in natural selection refers to the mechanism for determining who will survive long enough to reproduce (A mechanism called Reproductive Fitness)
In Operant Conditioning, selection of successful behaviors depends on their consequences
(Note: Providing a consequence does not automatically produce selection of the behavior that produced that consequence because some behaviors are harder to learn than other and require experiencing more than a single consequence)
There are 2 main mechanisms of selection:
1) Temporal Proximity
2) The Behavior-Consequence Contingency

7. What 2 Theorists Identified Temporal Proximity as a Mechanism of Selection?
Thorndike
Believed that temporal proximity b/w a behavior and reinforcer was the mechanism for selection and that it was both a necessary & sufficient condition for the selection of behavior
But he was wrong
Skinner
Believed that temporal proximity was mechanism for selection based on a finding that noncontingent presentations of food appeared to select certain behavior, which he called “Superstitious Behaviors”
He was also wrong; the behaviors he observed were not the result of selection by termporal proximity; they were induced by the periodic presentation of food

8. So, is temporal proximity really a mechanism for selection?
Temporal proximity is mechanism for selection, but it is neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for the occurrence of operant conditioning
Therefore, it cannot be the only mechanism of selection
That leaves the behavior-consequence contingency as the remaining candidate

9. Why do people perform superstitious rituals?
Superstitions are causal inferences based on the chance conjunctions of events
Temporal proximity aids in the development of causal inferences but it is not a necessary condition
Superstitious behavior in humans is more likely to be due to RULE-GOVERNED BEHAVIOR (rules that guide our behavior and make us less sensitive to the contingencies of reinforcement)
So if you believe that walking under a ladder brings you bad luck, even though nothing bad happens when you actually do walk under a ladder, because you have that “rule” in your head, you won’t walk under the ladder
Thus, it doesn’t matter if you are reinforced or not, you still won’t do it

10. The Behavior-Consequence Contingency
Is this the only mechanism for selection? NO
Because the mere presence of a contingency does not guarantee that a behavior will be selected by that contingency
Thus, the Behavior-Consequence Contingency is also neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for the occurrence of operant conditioning

11. What does Selection Actually Involve?
It involves a combination of both temporal proximity and behavior-consequence contingency
The individual uses both of the methods to test whether the reinforcing event is sue to chance or is in fact brought on by his or her behavior

12. Does selection involve gradual molding of behavior or the creation of new behavioral programs?
Shaping behavior by the method of successive approximations and the procedure of differentiation suggest that operant conditioning involves gradual molding of behavior by their consequences – This is NOT correct
Operant conditioning creates new behavioral programs which involves the rearrangement of existing behavior modules

13. Are selected behaviors strengthened or retained?
The use of the word reiforcement or reinforcer in operant conditioning suggests that behaviors are strengthened by their consequences, but in natural selection, traits are retained (not strengthened) by selection
We cannot distinguish between these 2 possibilities with our current level of knowledge

14. Operant Conditioning as an Adaptive Specialization
The mechanisms underlying instrumental learning and operant conditioning evolved so that individuals can use the consequences of their actions to discover what works and does not work in order to become more efficient in the future