1. HOMEOSTASIS NCS 2011 Laura Kannemeyer Maintaining a constant internal environment (tissue fluid)

2. TISSUE FLUID  Cells in body is surrounded by Extracellular fluid

3. How is homeostasis maintained  Keeps body in steady state.  Detects any change from the norm and then corrects this deviation.  If too MUCH of a particular factor process set in motion to reduce that factor  If too LITTLE of a particular factor process set in motion to increase that factor

4. How is homeostasis brought about?  Correction is brought about by Negative feedback control system o Receptor: detects change from norm o Control centre: processes the information/decides appropriate response. o Effector: responds and corrects the deviation

5. Homeostatic control mechanism receptor effector Control: brain

6. Feedback systems 1. Negative feedback: cancels or counteracts original stimulus (opposite present conditions), e.g., blood sugar balance, blood pH balance, blood pressure balance, body temperature "thermostat“ Definition: Negative feedback: (A principle governing most control systems) a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates action that reverse or reduce the stimulus.

7. 2. Positive feedback: increases original stimulus in reproductive processes: child birth (labor), sexual reproduction (orgasm) Definition: Positive feedback: a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates action that enhances the stimulus.

8. Thermoregulation  Maintenance of a constant body temperature by balancing Heat production: thermogenesis with Heat loss: thermolysis

9. ENDOTHERMS  Mammals that obtain heat from Cellular respiration.  Endo: inside therm: heat  Human body temperature is 37ºC  Optimum temperature for action of enzymes. ie high temperatures  denature enzymes low temperatures  sluggishness

10.  Homeothermic means that they can maintain a constant (high) body temperature.  Endothermic means that they can maintain their (high) body temperature by creating heat through metabolic means.

11. ECTOTHERMS  Gain heat from the environment

13. Heat gained by the body  Main source of heat is cellular respiration.  Behavioural means by absorbing from environs.  Increased secretion of thyroxin and adrenalin raises metabolic rate  speeds up respiration  releases more heat.

14. Heat lost from the body  Radiation: transfer of heat energy from a warm body to a colder environment. ie body losing heat

15.  Conduction: transfer of heat energy from a hotter to a cooler of two objects in contact

16.  Convection: occurs when a current of air / water flows over the surface of the body. ie Air warmed by the body rises and is replaced by cooler air.

17.  Evaporation: Change of liquid to a vapour / gas

20. SKIN OF THE MAMMAL

21. EPIDERMIS  Thick  Layers of dead cells at the surface.(cornified)  Contain keratin - “water-proof” the skin.  Forms horny pads on the soles of the feet and toes of many mammals  Function: * effective in protecting the underlying tissues from water loss, * invasion by microorganisms and * mechanical abrasion.

22. DERMIS  Composed of dense fibrous connective tissue  Contains blood vessels, nerve fibres and sensory endings, erector muscles, glands and hair follicles.  Sebaceous glands - produce oily and waxy secretions and  Sweat glands that are usually secreted into hair follicles

23. HAIR FOLICLE  Hair forms a dense protective and insulating fur over the body.  Eyelashes are modified hairs.

24. Subcutaneous fat layer  Insulation  waterproofing

26. Skin Receptors

29. How does body react in COLD? Cold End bulbs of Krause Hypothalamus Vasomotor center of medulla oblongata Effectors

30. THERMOREGULATION ON A COLD DAY  Temperature of the environment is much lower than that of the body.  Heat is lost from the body through radiation, evaporation, conduction and convection.  Body temperature drops below normal. - Body’s thermostat – hypothalamus - Stimuli (a) changes in temperature of the blood (b) impulses from sense organs in the skin ie end bulbs of Krause

31. 1.To reduce heat loss : The hypothalamus sends impulses to the: (a)Erector muscles in the skin  Muscles contract  Hair follicle rises / stand erect  Goosebumps are formed  Hair trap a thicker layer of air (air is a poor conductor of heat) acts as an insulator  Heat loss through radiation is ↓

32. (b) Involuntary muscles around the blood vessels in the skin  Circular muscles contract  ↓ diameter of blood vessels – they constrict called vasoconstriction  Less blood to the surface of the skin  Thus less heat to the surface of the skin  Thus ↓ loss of heat through radiation

34. (c)Sweat glands  Vasoconstriction cause less blood to flow to sweat glands  Become less active  Less sweat is produced  ↓ loss of heat through evaporation

35. (c)Subcutaneous layer of fat  Poor conductor of heat  Serves to insulate body against heat loss.

36. When the body is cold  1. The small capillaries near the surface of the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) so less blood flows nearer to the surface, and less heat is lost through he blood.  2. The hairs on the skin stand erect by the hair erector muscles tightening. The hairs trap a layer of insulating air therefore less heat is lost to the surroundings.  3. Sweat Glands produce less sweat so less heat is lost through evaporation.  The muscles also vibrate very quickly when it is cold, so heat is produced to keep the body temperature at the correct level. This is also known as shivering!

37. Factors that warm up the body  Low body temperatures  initiate shivering (contraction of voluntary muscles)  Behavioural factors eg wearing clothes / moving to warmer climate.  Increased production of thyroxin

38. Behavioural factors  The hypothalamus sends impulses to the cerebrum  The person becomes aware of the cold and goes over to voluntary actions: (a) ↑ intake of warm food and drink (e.g. coffee) (b)seeks shelter (indoors) (c)warmer clothes (d)seeks heat from the sun or heater

39. Increased production of thyroxin Hypophysis o It is stimulated to secrete more TSH o this stimulates the thyroid gland o to produce more thyroxin: ↑ in the general body metabolism ↑ in cellular respiration ↑ heat production

40. Hypothermia  Drop in body temperature to below 35ºC o Prolonged exposure to cold o Enzymes become sluggish: Irregular heart beat Low respiratory rate Drop in blood pressure Brain activity impaired Uncorrected cardiac arrest Coma death

41. How does body react in HOT? Heat Ruffinian bodies Hypothalamus Vasomotor center of medulla oblongata Effectors

42.  Body temperature rises above normal. - Body’s thermostat – hypothalamus - Stimuli (a) changes in temperature of the blood (b) impulses from sense organs in the skin ie Ruffini’s corpuscles THERMOREGULATION ON A HOT DAY

43. 2.To increase heat production The hypothalamus sends impulses to the: (a)Blood vessels to the skin  Inhibits impulses to circular muscles  relax  Allows large volume of blood to flow to capillary loops  vasodilation  Heat in blood is lost through radiation, conduction, convection

44. (b)Sweat glands  Vasodilation  more blood flow to seat glands ie ↑ sweating  Evaporation of sweat  cools the body Factors affecting rate of evaporation: environmental temperature - ↑ temp, quicker evap. air movement - ↑ wind, quicker evap. humidity - ↓ dry air, rapid evap.

45. When the body is hot  1. The small capillaries near the surface of the skin dilate (vasodilation) so more blood flows nearer to the surface, and more heat is lost through he blood. The body therefore cools down.  2. The hairs on the skin lie flat because the hair erector muscles slacken. No layer of insulating air is trapped therefore heat can be lost more easily.  3. Sweat Glands produce more sweat so more heat can be lost through evaporation.

46. (c) Erector hair muscles  Muscles not stimulated.  Hair follicle continue to lie flat.

49. Overheating of the body:  Heat stroke / sunstroke  Prolonged exposure to high temperatures  Symptoms headache / dizziness / general weakness sweating ↓ body appears flushed / pulse rate ↑ collapse of circulatory system death Hyperthermia