FYBSc.

Biodiversity

Which do you like better?
Circa 1910 A B

Which do you like better?
Sugar cane A B

What do you think biodiversity means?

Biodiversity What does “Bio” mean? Life Bio =

What does “Diversity” mean?
Biodiversity What does “Diversity” mean? Diversity = Variety

“The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations”
Includes: ecosystem diversity, species diversity, and genetic diversity

Scientists have identified more than 2 million species
Scientists have identified more than 2 million species. Tens of millions -- remain unknown The tremendous variety of life on Earth is made possible by complex interactions among all living things.

Main idea: Biodiversity maintains a healthy biosphere and provides direct and indirect value to humans. Objectives: Describe three types of biodiversity. Explain the importance of biodiversity. Summarize the direct and indirect value of biodiversity.

There are 3 components of biodiversity
Diversity of genes Chihuahuas, Greyhound and Newfies are all dogs—but they're not the same because their genes are different. Chihuahua Greyhound Newfoundland

Genetic Diversity The variety of genes or inheritable characteristics that are present in a population comprises its genetic diversity. Genetic diversity within an interbreeding population increases the chances that some species will survive during changing environmental conditions or during the outbreak of disease.

There are 3 components of biodiversity
Diversity of species. Hoary Bat Kahuli Iwi

Species Diversity The number of different species and the relative abundance of each species in a biological community is called species diversity.

Why is biodiversity important?
Biodiversity provides us with: Natural Resources (food, water, wood, energy, and medicines) Natural (Ecosystem) Services including: air and water purification, soil fertility, waste disposal, pest control) Aesthetic pleasure

Variety of ecosystems Each one is different, with its own set of species living in it.
Tropical Rain Forest tiaga Desert

Biodiversity has Intrinsic Value
Source: Burmbaugh © AMNH-CBC Intrinsic Value = Something that has value in and of itself

Biodiversity also has Utilitarian Value
Utilitarian Value = the value something has as a means to another’s end. Utilitarian values include: Goods Services Information

What do we get from biodiversity?
Oxygen Food Clean Water Medicine Aesthetics Ideas

Direct Use Value: Goods
Source: © AMNH-CBC Food Building Materials Fuel Paper Products Fiber (clothing, textiles) Industrial products (waxes, rubber, oils) Medicine Direct Use Value: Goods This slide lists some of the different kinds of goods or products derived from biodiversity including food, building materials, fuel, paper products, fiber for clothing and textiles, industrial products, and medicine. In subsequent slides, several of these goods will be highlighted. [Note: The image depicts a man in Vietnam who is extracting bamboo for use as building material.]

Source: © AMNH-CBC Food Today, most people rely on ~20 types of plants, and only 3 to 4 are staple crops. Diversity is critical for developing new strains and breeds, i.e. that suit a particular environment or are resistant to pests or disease and as a source of new crops Food Historically, humans have exploited thousands of plant species for food; today, however, most people on Earth depend on three staple crops (rice, wheat, and corn). Despite this dependence on few species, the genetic diversity in wild plants and animals remain important for creating new strains or breeds. Also, there are many species that one day could be a potential food source. Sorghum, emmer, and spelt, once widely grown grains, have been largely replaced by wheat. However, because of their unique environmental adaptations – sorghum, for example, can be grown in drier climates that do not support wheat – these grasses may become more important in the future if climatic conditions change. [Image is of rice paddies in Vietnam.]

Building Materials, Paper Products, and Fuel
Source: © AMNH-CBC Building Materials, Fuel, and Paper Products Trees and several grasses, most notably bamboo and rattan, are basic commodities used worldwide for building materials, paper products, and fuel. The worldwide production of timber and related products – including homes, furniture, mulch, chipboard, paper and packaging – is a multi-billion dollar industry. Outside of large market economies, products from particular species of wild-growing woody plants are key sources of shelter (e.g., termite-resistant support poles), household items (furniture, utensils, baskets, etc.), long-burning fuels, and dyes. One of the most important uses of wood is for fuel. According to the World Resources Institute, 63 percent of all harvested wood is used as fuel – whether burned directly or after being converted to charcoal. Fuelwood, charcoal, and other fuel from wood are the major sources of energy in low-income countries; the major consumers and producers of wood for fuel are Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and Nigeria. [Image is of children in Vietnam preparing thatch for roofs.] Prior to showing the next slide ask students if they can guess how many of the leading prescription drugs have their origins in biodiversity. Students can also guess how many people in developing countries depend directly on plants for medicine.

Fiber Source: USDA Cotton Program Source: USDA Photo b Ken Hammond

Industrial Products

Medicine About 80% of the people in developing countries use plants as a primary source of medicine. 57% of the 150 most-prescribed drugs have their origins in biodiversity Source: © AMNH-CBC Medicine People depend on biodiversity for medicinal purposes in two ways: directly as a primary source of medicine, and indirectly as a source of the chemical structures used in synthesizing drugs or service. [Image depicts medicinal herbs in a market in Bolivia.]

Traditional Medicine:Basis of Many Drugs
This table gives some examples of Western drugs whose origins were from plants. Those noted in bold were originally used for tradition medicine. Instructor may choose to tell any number of stories of drug discovery based on plants used for traditional medicine, such as the use of foxglove for heart conditions, now the basis for digitoxin.

Indirect Use Values: Services
Regulating global processes, such as atmosphere and climate Soil and water conservation Nutrient cycling Pollination and seed dispersal Control of agricultural pests Genetic library Inspiration and information Scientific and educational Tourism and recreation Cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic Community Resilience Strategic Source: © AMNH-CBC Indirect Use Values: Services This slide lists some of the different services provided by biodiversity. Ecosystem services encompass a wide variety of different resources, functions, and processes provided to humans and to other biodiversity. Unlike goods, these are often outside traditional economic markets, and thus more difficult to value monetarily. Several of the services of biodiversity will be examined in the following slides. Is it possible to place a value on ecosystem services, like nutrient cycling or watershed protection? Why is it helpful to do this? The article by Costanza and others (1997) can form the basis of a discussion on this subject

Global Processes : Atmospheric Regulation
Source: Frey © AMNH-CBC Photosynthetic biodiversity created an oxygenated atmosphere, and also has the potential to moderate the rising amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide linked to global climate change Global Processes: Atmospheric Regulation Forests and other vegetation modify climate in a variety of ways; they affect sun reflectance, water vapor release, wind patterns, and moisture loss. Photosynthetic biodiversity also has the potential to moderate the rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels linked to global climate change by fixing carbon in organic matter. The evolution of photosynthesis is responsible for one of the most dramatic changes in the Earth's environment: the increase of atmospheric oxygen. 3.5 billion years ago, cyanobacteria, through the process of photosynthesis, released oxygen and helped to create the atmosphere we know today. The regulation of atmospheric oxygen depends on biodiversity. Carbon cycles between the land, atmosphere, and oceans through a combination of physical, chemical, geological, and biological processes. One key way biodiversity influences the composition of the earth’s atmosphere, and in turn its climate, is through its role in carbon cycling in the oceans

Global Processes: Climate Regulation
Forests and other vegetation modify climate: by affecting sun reflectance, water vapor release, wind patterns and moisture loss. Forests help maintain a humid environment, for example, half of all rainfall in Amazon basin is produced locally from forest-atmosphere cycle Source: Bain © AMNH-CBC Global Processes: Climate Regulation Besides regulating the atmosphere’s composition, the extent and distribution of different types of vegetation over the globe modifies climate in three main ways: affecting the reflectance of sunlight (radiation balance); regulating the release of water vapor (evapotranspiration); and changing wind patterns and moisture loss (surface roughness). Vegetation absorbs water from the soil and releases it back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, which is the major pathway for water to move from the soil to the atmosphere. This release of water from vegetation cools the air temperature. In the Amazon region, vegetation and climate is tightly coupled; evapotranspiration of plants is believed to contribute fifty percent of the annual rainfall. Deforestation in this region leads to a complex feedback mechanism: as forest cover decreases, evapotranspiration rates decline, which in turn decreases rainfall and increases the area’s vulnerability to fire.

Soil and Water Conservation
Source: Ersts © AMNH-CBC Soil and Water Conservation Soil and water conservation: Biodiversity is also important for global soil and water protection. Terrestrial vegetation in forests and other upland habitats maintain water quality and quantity, and control soil erosion. In watersheds where vegetation has been removed, flooding prevails in the wet season and drought in the dry season. Soil erosion is also more intense and rapid, causing a double effect: removing nutrient-rich topsoil and leading to siltation in downstream riverine and ultimately oceanic environments. This example focuses on services provided by coastal wetlands and mangroves. Wetlands are ecosystems where water is present at or near the soil surface or root zone for part or all of the year; the vegetation found in these regions is adapted for these conditions. Wetlands are among the world's most productive ecosystems and provide a range of ecological services, including filtering excess nutrients, trapping sediments, minimizing damage to coastal areas from floods and waves, and providing critical habitat for many birds, fish, and shellfish – in particular the juvenile stage of several commercial fish. The services of a wetland are not easy to replace if they are removed. Dams and water treatment facilities are the engineering equivalent of a wetland, but are often very expensive to build and maintain. According to the US Army Corps of Engineers, without the 3,800 hectares of wetlands that exist along the Charles River in Boston, Massachusetts, flood damage would cost $17 million per year. This is one method to establish a value for biodiversity – by its “replacement value.” Example: Coastal wetlands and mangroves Filters excess nutrients and traps sediments that would otherwise impact neighboring marine and aquatic areas Other services: Minimizes damage from waves and floods Serves as a nursery for juvenile commercial fish Provides habitat for many birds, fish, and shellfish

Nutrient Cycling Decomposers such as algae, fungi, and bacteria
Biodiversity is critical to nutrient cycling and soil renewal Decomposers such as algae, fungi, and bacteria Source: Snyder © AMNH-CBC Nutrient Cycling The flow of nutrients through an ecosystem is critical to its health. Biodiversity (including algae, fungi, bacteria, and insects) decompose organic matter, recycling and returning nutrients to soils. [The image is of a decomposing deer.]

Pollination and Seed Dispersal
Many flowering plants depend on animals for pollination to produce food. 30% of human crops depend on free services of pollinators; replacement value estimated billions of rupees/year in India alone Pollination and Seed Dispersal Approximately 90% of flowering plants depend on pollination by bees, birds, bats and other pollinators for reproduction. The loss of pollinators and the services they provide would drastically reduce the size of food harvests and threaten non-agricultural species with extinction. Besides pollination, biodiversity provides many other services to agriculture not detailed here, such as natural pest control and a genetic library for crop and livestock improvement. Source: Spector© AMNH-CBC

Source of Inspiration or Information
Biomimicry Applied Biology Medical Models Education and Scientific Research Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC Source of Inspiration or Information Humans have always relied on biodiversity to help understand and solve problems in the world around us. This slide examines some of the ways that biodiversity inspires us, from biomimicry to applied biology and medical models, as well as for scientific research and education. Discoveries made during scientific research have revolutionized many fields. A heat-tolerant enzyme found in bacteria living in the hotsprings of Yellowstone National Park in the United States is the underpinning of much of today’s genetic and biotechnology research. These heat-tolerant enzymes, known as taq enzymes, are used in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to replicate genetic material. From airplanes to velcro, the natural world has provided a source of inspiration to overcome challenges. This phenomenon is sometimes termed “biomimicry” as the technological innovation mimics something from the biological world. For example, Velcro was patterned after cockleburs, a plant that disperses its seeds via its sticky seed pods that attach to people or animals as they walk through a meadow.

Medical Models trauma patients kidney disease osteoporosis
Source: New Jersey Fish and Wildlife Medical Models Hibernating bears may improve the treatment of: trauma patients kidney disease osteoporosis Medical Models Biodiversity also provides a source of medical models to better understand diseases. Understanding how bears are able to hibernate may uncover new ways to assist trauma patients and treat kidney disease and osteoporosis. Bears hibernate for 150 days, stopping all normal functions (such as eating, drinking, urinating, and defecating). Bears are able to accomplish this arrest of bodily functions by lowering their body temperature only slightly – by 5 degrees Celsius. Scientists have discovered a protein that induces hibernation, slowing organ metabolism and blood coagulation. One application of this discovery could be to slow bleeding in trauma patients while in transit to the emergency room. During hibernation, bears are also able to recycle their urine and use it to rebuild tissue. This ability may be useful for treating kidney illnesses. Finally, bears also manage to survive hibernation with minimal bone loss, which may provide solutions for people suffering from osteoporosis.

Spiritual and Cultural Values
The survival of natural areas and species are important to different cultures around the world. Thousands of cultural groups in the world, each have distinct traditions and knowledge for relating to natural world Source: Projecto Gato Andino Bolivia, Villalba & Bernal, 1998 Spiritual and Cultural Values Most cultures place distinct values on natural areas. Symbols from the natural world are used in art and literature; different cultures often place different values on biodiversity. Nature is often central to spiritual traditions. Many religions (from Buddhism to Christianity) seek to define humans’ relationship to Nature. [This image from Bolivia depicts an Aymara man with the hide of an Andean cat (Oreailurus jacobita), considered sacred by the Aymara people. Traditions vary in the Andean region, in some areas, hunting of the Andean cat is taboo, while in others, their skins are used in religious rites or as part of costumes for traditional dances.]

Aesthetic Value Aesthetic Value
Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC Aesthetic Value Another example of cultural values is the aesthetic value that different cultures find in biodiversity. In fact many of the first national parks and protected areas were created to protect beautiful and awe-inspiring landscapes. How do aesthetic values differ between cultures?

Ecological Value: Does Diversity Make Communities More Resilient?
Resilient ecosystems are characterized by: Constancy (Lack of fluctuation) Inertia (Resistance to perturbation) Renewal (Ability to repair damage) Not all species are critical to an ecosystems function; many fill redundant roles; basis for community resilience and integrity If too many species or keystone species are lost, eventually it leads to the failure of ecosystem function Ecological Value: Does Diversity Make Communities More Resilient Natural communities are finely tuned systems, where each species has an ecological value to the other species that are part of that ecosystem. Species diversity increases an ecosystem’s stability and resilience, in particular its ability to adapt and respond to changing environmental conditions. If a certain amount, or type (such as a keystone species) of species are lost, eventually it leads to the loss of ecosystem function. Many ecosystems though have built-in redundancies so that two or more species’ functions may overlap. Because of these redundancies, several changes in the number or type of species may not impact an ecosystem. However, not all species within an ecosystem are of the same importance. Species that are important due to their sheer numbers are often called dominant species. These species make up the most biomass of an ecosystem. Species that have important ecological roles that are greater than one would expect based on their abundance are called keystone species. These species are often central to the structure of an ecosystem; removal of one or several keystone species may have consequences immediately, or decades or centuries later (Jackson et al. 2001). Ecosystems are complex and difficult to study, thus it is often difficult to identify keystone species. In the following example, the impact of removing an individual or several keystone species from kelp forest ecosystems in the Pacific is examined.

Kelp Forest Food Webs Kelp Forest Food Webs
Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC Kelp Forest Food Webs Kelp forests, as their name suggests, are dominated by kelp, a brown seaweed of the family Laminariales. They are found in shallow, rocky habitats from temperate to subarctic regions, and are important ecosystems for many commercially valuable fish and invertebrates. Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are considered a keystone species, as a result of their role in structuring the kelp forest habitats found off the coast of western North America. These illustrations show kelp forest food webs in the presence and absence of sea otters, and demonstrate how the loss of this keystone species can drastically alter and reduce ecosystem function and complexity.

Non-Use or Passive Values
Existence value Bequest value Potential or Option value Non-Use or Passive Values There are several less tangible values that are sometimes called non-use or passive values, for things that we don’t use but would feel a loss if they were to disappear; these typically include existence value, the value of knowing something exists even if you will never use it or see it, and bequest value, the value of knowing something will be there for future generations. Economists sometimes use surveys to estimate these values, asking for example what someone is willing to pay to simply know that tigers exist even if they will never see or use one. Potential or option value refers to the use that something may have in the future; some authors consider this a form of use value, but here it is included within the passive values based on its abstract nature, for example, a plant may have a potential value but until this value is realized, this value is uncertain; once the plant’s value is recognized, it is a use value.

Biodiversity Collections Accreditation criteria Apply to campus tree collections Homework: go to a ‘Collection’

CONSERVATION

In situ conservation Setting up wild life reserves is not just a matter of building a fence around an area and letting it grow “wild” Without grazing animals heathlands which contain a number of rare species will revert to woodland

Nature reserves and national parks
First the area that is suitable for the creation of a reserve has to be identified and delimited This requires surveys to collect data on key species Property may have to be expropriated A legal framework may need to be set up to control human activities in the area and in it’s immediate surroundings Policing the area may also be necessary

IUCN Red List International Union for Conservation of Nature
Nine categories: Extinct Extinct in the Wild Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable Near Threatened Least Concern Data Deficient Not evaluated Background to the IUCN Red List About the IUCN Red List Many species are declining to critical population levels, important habitats are being destroyed, fragmented, and degraded, and ecosystems are being destabilised through climate change, pollution, invasive species, and direct human impacts. At the same time, there is also growing awareness of how biodiversity supports livelihoods, allows sustainable development and fosters co-operation between nations. This awareness is generated through products such as the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. Biodiversity loss is one of the world's most pressing crises and there is growing global concern about the status of the biological resources on which so much of human life depends. It has been estimated that the current species extinction rate is between 1,000 and 10,000 times higher than it would naturally be. Governments, the private sector, multilateral agencies responsible for natural resource use, and environmental treaties all need access to the latest information on biodiversity when making environment-related decisions. Information about species and ecosystems is essential for moving towards more sustainable use of our natural resources. The IUCN Red List Partnership Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) BirdLife International The IUCN Red List Partnership consists of members and partners of IUCN who are making a particularly significant contribution to The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ™. This takes the form of technical or financial support or both. The Partnership currently consists of: Conservation International Royal Botanic Gardens Kew NatureServe Department of Animal and Human Biology at Sapienza University of Rome Wildscreen Texas A&M University A brief history of the IUCN Red List The Head of the Species Programme is the focal point for the IUCN Red List Partnership. Zoological Society of London The IUCN Red List System was first conceived in 1963 and set a standard for species listing and conservation assessment efforts. For more than 30 years the Species Survival Commission has been evaluating the conservation status of species and subspecies on a global scale - highlighting those threatened with extinction and promoting their conservation. Over time, however, IUCN recognised that a more objective and scientific system for determining threat status was needed, one that drew on advances in the science of conservation biology and other disciplines. There was also a need for a more accurate system for use at the national and regional level. The IUCN Red List Categories evolved over a four-year period through extensive consultation and testing with more than 800 SSC members, and the wider scientific community. The more precise and quantitative Red List Categories and Criteria were adopted by IUCN in 1994. In 1988 all bird species were evaluated, and in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals the conservation status of every mammal species in the world was assessed for the first time. These were major milestones in conservation because not only was the overall status of mammals and birds determined, but a baseline was established from which to monitor future trends. For the 1996 list 5,205 species were evaluated resulting in 25% of all mammals and 11% of all birds being listed as threatened. The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are leading IUCN in new directions that will allow sophisticated biodiversity analyses, which will contribute to scientific discovery and to political policies related to conservation at local, national, and regional levels. The system has since undergone further intense review and has been refined to ensure the highest standards of documentation (supporting information), information management, training, and scientific credibility. “Red List Indices" have been produced which chart overall changes in the threat status of the world's birds and amphibians, the two groups that have been completely assessed. These are based on the number of species that moved between categories as a result of genuine changes in threat status (excluding moves resulting form improved knowledge or taxonomic changes). The IUCN Red List Index – charting overall changes in the status of species The IUCN Red List is the world's most comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of plant and animal species. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world. With its strong scientific base, the IUCN Red List is recognized as the most authoritative guide to the status of biological diversity. What is the IUCN Red List? The IUCN Red List Programme will improve the taxonomic coverage of the Red List Indices in the coming years as they are central to monitoring the progress of global efforts to reduce biodiversity loss. Governance of the IUCN Red List The overall aim of the Red List is to convey the urgency and scale of conservation problems to the public and policy makers, and to motivate the global community to try to reduce species extinctions. The Biodiversity Assessments Sub-Committee (BASC) oversees and guides the Species Survival Commission’s work on biodiversity assessments BASC terms of reference ( 30KB). This includes having responsibility for the IUCN Red List. The BASC reports to the SSC Steering Committee. Much of the work involved in producing and maintaining the IUCN Red List is technical in nature and several working groups have been formed within the BASC to carry out this work: Standards and Petitions Working Group (SPWG): The SPWG is responsible for ensuring the quality and standard of the IUCN Red List, focusing on the correct use of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. This working group developed and regularly updates the Guidelines for using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria, and is responsible for making final decisions over formal petitions against listings on the IUCN Red List. SPWG terms of reference ( 42KB). Biodiversity Assessment Users Working Group (UWG): The UWG is responsible for ensuring consistency in application of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. In particular, the UWG seeks to ensure that the SSC’s major global and regional biodiversity assessment projects are implemented in a similar manner. UWG terms of reference ( 26KB). National Red List Working Group (NRLWG): The NRLWG is responsible for overseeing the use of the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria at the national level, and for building linkages between the IUCN Red List and species assessment processes at national levels. NRLWG terms of reference ( 27KB). Red List Index Working Group (RLIWG): The RLIWG is responsible for developing the IUCN Red List Index as a tool for monitoring changes in the status of biodiversity at the species level. RLI terms of reference ( 27KB). In order to significantly increase the number of species assessments for the Red List, a Red List partnership has been formed comprising IUCN and its Species Survival Commission, BirdLife International, Conservation International's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, and NatureServe. Red list partnership. Classification Schemes Working Group (CSWG): The CSWG is responsible for defining and proposing changes to the IUCN Classification Schemes that will be needed in order to carry out new analyses and produce agreed priority products by CSWG terms of reference ( 22KB). The Red List is used by government agencies, wildlife departments, conservation-related non-governmental organizations (NGOs), natural resource planners, educational organizations, and many others interested in reversing, or at least halting the decline in biodiversity. Who uses the IUCN Red List? Uses of the IUCN Red List Provides a global index of the decline of biodiversity Identifies and documents those species most in need of conservation action Draws attention to the magnitude and importance of threatened biodiversity Establishes a baseline from which to monitor the future status of species Helps influence national and international policy, and provides information to international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Provides information to help establish conservation priorities at the local level and guide conservation action How threatened is a particular species? The IUCN Red List can answer commonly asked questions such as How many known extinctions have there been? How many threatened species occur in a given country? What are the threats to a species? In 2000, the Red List combined animal and plant assessments into a single list for the first time (containing 18,000 species assessments). This, together with improved documentation for each species, meant that the Red List was too big to publish as a book. Since then, it has been available in electronic format, on a specially designated, searchable website The Red List is being updated every year, with a major analysis conducted every four to five years. There are nine categories in the IUCN Red List system: Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern, Data Deficient, and Not Evaluated. Classification into the categories for species threatened with extinction (Vulnerable, Endangered, and Critically Endangered) is through a set of five quantitative criteria that form the heart of the system. These criteria are based on biological factors related to extinction risk and include: rate of decline, population size, area of geographic distribution, and degree of population and distribution fragmentation. How is the IUCN Red List compiled? For more detail see the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria version 3.1. and the IUCN Red List Process. EXTINCT (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form. The Categories and their application EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW) A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered (see Red List Categories and Criteria booklet for details) and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. ENDANGERED (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered (see Red List Categories and Criteria booklet for details), and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild. VULNERABLE (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Red List Categories and Criteria booklet for details), and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. NEAR THREATENED (NT) A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for, or is likely to qualify for, a threatened category in the near future. LEAST CONCERN (LC) A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. DATA DEFICIENT (DD) A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified. NOT EVALUATED (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. Yellow-crested cockatoo (Critically Endangered) less than 7000 individuals remain

Which conservation organisations do you know?
WWF Conservation International Flora and Fauna International Wildlife Conservation Society Birdlife International The Nature Conservancy Get them to think about conservation organisations that they know about, see what they come up with and how they operate. These are some of the big international ones. More will probably be mentioned that are more local, e.g. RSPB Few paragraphs about each below from their websites: WWF: WWF believes in a future where people and nature thrive. Best known as the world’s leading conservation body, we’ve seen first-hand how wildlife, the environment and human activity are all interlinked. That’s why our passion for safeguarding the natural world has to be backed up by other environmental action – tackling the global threat of climate change (through our big global campaigns like Earth Hour) and helping people to change the way they live to ease pressure on natural resources. WWF is at the heart of global activities in all these areas. We have teams of highly skilled professionals working with governments, businesses and communities here in the UK and around the world. Building upon a strong foundation of science, partnership and field demonstration, CI empowers societies to responsibly and sustainably care for nature, our global biodiversity, for the well-being of humanity. CI: CI's Vision Every person on Earth deserves a healthy environment and the fundamental benefits that nature provides. But our planet is experiencing an unprecedented drawdown of these resources, and it is only by protecting nature and its gifts – a stable climate, fresh water, healthy oceans and reliable food – that we can ensure a better life for everyone, everywhere. The challenges confronting our global environment and the needs of the world's human populations have never been greater; the future, quite literally, is in the balance. We imagine a healthy, prosperous world in which societies are forever committed to caring for and valuing nature, for the long-term benefit of people and all life on Earth. Armed with a new mission and strategy and inspired by the values that guide us, we aim to influence the course of global development, demonstrating to governments, institutions and corporations alike that a path that values nature is essential for human well-being – and the well-being of all life on our planet. FFI: run over 100 projects in 40 countries, to conserve area and species working together with local communities. World’s first conservation organisation. WCS: American based. The Wildlife Conservation Society, founded in 1895, has the clear mission to save wildlife and wild places across the globe. Our story began in the early 1900’s when we successfully helped the American bison recover on the Western Plains. Today, we protect many of the world’s iconic creatures here and abroad, including gorillas in the Congo, tigers in India, wolverines in the Yellowstone Rockies, and ocean giants in our world’s amazing seascapes. During our 115 years, we have forged the power of our global conservation work and the management of our five parks in New York City to create the world’s most comprehensive conservation organization. We currently manage about 500 conservation projects in more than 60 countries; and educate millions of visitors at our five living institutions in New York City on important issues affecting our planet. Our parks include: the Bronx Zoo, New York Aquarium, Central Park Zoo, Prospect Park Zoo and Queens Zoo. With a commitment to protect 25 percent of the world’s biodiversity, we address four of the biggest issues facing wildlife and wild places: climate change; natural resource exploitation; the connection between wildlife health and human health; and the sustainable development of human livelihoods. While taking on these issues, we manage more than 200 million acres of protected lands around the world, with more than 200 scientists on staff. The WCS parks in New York City welcome 4 million visitors each year, including helping the city to educate millions of schoolchildren in science and conservation issues. Our history, dating back to ensuring the survival of the American bison, inspires our work each day. We hope our work in turn inspires millions to take action to protect the natural resources that are so important to all life on our fragile Earth. The Wildlife Conservation Society saves wildlife and wild places worldwide. We do so through science, global conservation, education and the management of the world's largest system of urban wildlife parks, led by the flagship Bronx Zoo. Together these activities change attitudes towards nature and help people imagine wildlife and humans living in harmony. WCS is committed to this mission because it is essential to the integrity of life on Earth. Our mission statement Birdlife International: BirdLife International is a global Partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources. BirdLife Partners operate in over one hundred countries and territories worldwide. Learn more in BirdLife Partners. We're the World's largest partnership of conservation organisations. Global Partnership explains how BirdLife International is organised. BirdLife Partners collaborate on regional work programmes in every continent. Learn more in Regional Work. By focusing on birds, and the sites and habitats on which they depend, the BirdLife Partnership is working to improve the quality of life for birds, for other wildlife (biodiversity), and for people. Our Vision explains how BirdLife works. maintain and where possible improve the conservation status of all bird species prevent the extinction of any bird species BirdLife's aims are to: conserve and where appropriate improve and enlarge sites and habitats important for birds integrate bird conservation into sustaining people's livelihoods. help, through birds, to conserve biodiversity and to improve the quality of people's lives We address the most pressing conservation threats at the largest scale. Thanks to the support of our more than 1 million members, we’ve built a tremendous record of success since our founding in 1951: The Nature Conservancy: The Nature Conservancy is the leading conservation organization working around the world to protect ecologically important lands and waters for nature and people. We've protected more than 119 million acres of land and 5,000 miles of rivers worldwide — and we operate more than 100 marine conservation projects globally. We address threats to conservation involving climate change, fresh water, oceans, and conservation lands. Learn how we're responding. We work in all 50 states and more than 30 countries — protecting habitats from grasslands to coral reefs, from Australia to Alaska to Zambia. See where we work. Why We're Successful Everything we do is rooted in good science — aided by our hundreds of staff scientists. Dive deeper into our science. It's who we are and how we work that has made the Conservancy so successful — and makes us optimistic that we can expand that great conservation work to meet the challenges ahead: We partner with indigenous communities, businesses, governments, multilateral institutions, and other non-profits. Learn more about our partnerships. We pursue non-confrontational, pragmatic solutions to conservation challenges. Learn why we're so effective. We have the support of more than 1 million members who enable us continue working on a scale that matters and implement solutions that endure. Find out how you can support our work.

Biodiversity Hotspots
Conservation International use two factors to determine which areas qualify as a global biodiversity hotspot: Number of endemic vascular plant species (those found nowhere else) Amount of original habitat lost Used vascular plants as they were most studied and easy to quantify. Now adding other groups, such as vertebrates, flowering plants etc Norman Myers introduced the concept of biodiversity hotspots in 1988 when he first identified 10 tropical forest ‘hotspots’ characterised by having exceptional levels of plant endemism and serious levels of threat. He added a further 8 in 1990. In 1989 Conservation International adopted Myers’ hotspots as its institutional blueprint, and in 1996 a full review of the concept was undertaken, and in 1999 an extensive global review was undertaken, using quantitative thresholds to define a hotspot. The 1500 species of vascular plant endemics represents >0.5% of the world’s total. The results of this review identified 25 hotspots. Subsequently the hotspots were revisited and in the latest analysis 34 biodiversity hotspots have been defined.

Endemism can be used to identify centres of diversity, also known as hotspots

Each hotspots contains over 1,500 endemic vascular plants species This represents over 0.5% of the world’s total vascular endemic plant species The 1500 species of vascular plant endemics represents >0.5% of the world’s total.

Degree of threat was determined by the percentage of remaining habitat within a region, with each hotspot retaining less than 30 percent of its original natural habitat Some of the hotspots have less than 10 percent of the original natural habitat Must have lost over 70% of its original habitat

Overall, the 34 hotspots once covered 15.7% of Earth’s land surface 86% of the hotspots’ habitat has already been destroyed Intact remnants of the hotspots now only cover 2.3% of the Earth’s land surface Hold at least 150,000 endemic plant species Contain 11,980 endemic terrestrial vertebrate species Hold 50% of the world’s total endemic plants The endemic vertebrates represent 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species Overall 22,022 terrestrial species live in the hotspots, 77% of the world’s total. Hold 29% of the world’s freshwater fish as endemics, and 55% of the world’s freshwater fish species-likely to be underestimates, as 200 freshwater fish species are newly described each year Buton is part of the Wallacea biodiversity hotspot, as classified by Conservation International, 2006.

Role of Biodiversity Collection
Education Research Species distributions classification Conservation and recovery programs

Should we be concerned about biodiversity?
What we know: The Earth is losing species at an alarming rate Some scientists estimate that as many as 3 species per hour are going extinct and 20,000 extinctions occur each year. when species of plants and animals go extinct, many other species are affected.

Threats to biodiversity
HIPPO Dilemma Habitat Loss Introduced Species Pollution Population Growth Over-consumption

Habitat loss is the greatest reason for biodiversity loss.
Habitat loss is due to: Conversion of natural areas to farms, houses, etc Fragmentation of ecosystems by human activities, housing, transportation, agriculture etc. Simplification of genetic diversity and complex ecosystems by planting/selecting monocultures. Habitat loss/destruction

Have no natural predators Colonize disturbed habitats quickly
Invasive / Exotic Species Invasive, exotic species introduced from elsewhere outcompete native species because they: Have no natural predators Colonize disturbed habitats quickly Have a high biotic potential (r-species)

Pollution Pollution (Oil spills, human agricultural waste, fertilization, pesticides, acid deposition, greenhouse gases etc) caused by human activities has a negative effect on biodiversity

Population, Human overpopulation that is.
6.8 Billion and counting. The expansion of human population and affluence, especially in the developing world harms natural ecosystems.

Overharvesting, Overuse, Overexploitation
Overhunting, overfishing, destructive harvesting practices (cyanide, dynamite), illegal trade, exotic pet industry

Raven, Berg, and Hassenzahl put it this way
Human Population Increase Land use change (Habitat loss) Increasing Economic Activity Increasing Economic Activity Declining Biological Diversity Increased use of technology Increased use of technology Social, political and cultural factors Social, political and cultural factors Indirect (Underlying causes) Direct causes

Characteristics shared by many endangered species include:
Low reproductive rate (biotic potential) Feed at high trophic levels (apex predator) Large body size Specialist Specialized feeding habits Specialized nesting and/or breeding areas Fixed migratory patterns Found in one place or region Rare Commercially valuable Negative human interactions including attacks on people or livestock

Why should we worry about conservation?
Ethics = we know what we are doing and its negative effects  is it right to continue this? Aesthetics = the natural world is more beautiful than strip malls and roads  should we keep it around?

Genetic resources = end result of millions of years of evolution – unique gene combinations for disease resistance, chemical production, etc Commercial = many of the products we rely on result from the biotic component of the planet - opportunity cost  value of the next best alternative forgone as a result of making a choice -implies choice of results that are mutually exclusive

Life support = plants produce the oxygen we need to survive, soil provides the means for growing food, organisms/processes cycle and purify the water we need Ecosystem support = the interactions of the world are all connected  effect one  effect it all

Biodiversity Collection
State Agency or Private Organization Accreditation Organization Community Volunteers Biodiversity Collection Historical Agreements Community Visitor Industry

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