1. Lecture 6 Opening Packages of Radioactive Materials Opening Packages of Radioactive Materials Records of Radioactive Materials Uses Records of Radioactive Materials Uses Radioactive Waste Disposal Radioactive Waste Disposal Units used in Radiation Safety and Radiation Biology Units used in Radiation Safety and Radiation Biology

2. Measure of Amount of radioactive material Ionization in air Absorbed energy per mass Absorbed dose weighted by type of radiation Radiation Units *Note: For most types of radiation 1 R  1 rad = 1 rem Quantity Activity Exposure Absorbed Dose Dose Equivalent Unit curie (Ci) roentgen (R) Rad (mRad) Rem (mRem)

3. In some cases, SI units have replaced conventional units.

4. Natural Radioactivity in Your Body Nuclide Activity. Uranium 30 pCi (1.1 Bq) Thorium 3 pCi (0.11 Bq) Potassium 40 120 nCi (4.4 kBq) Radium 30 pCi (1.1 Bq) Carbon 14 0.4 µCi (15 kBq) Tritium 0.6 nCi (23 Bq) Polonium 1 nCi (37 Bq)

5. Source: BEIR V Report, 1990 Background Radiation 360 millirem per year

6. Radiation Exposures at AMH The average occupational radiation exposure to all personnel, who do not handle radioactive material or perform invasive radiology/cardiology procedures, is less than 100 millirem per year. The average occupational radiation exposure to all personnel, who do not handle radioactive material or perform invasive radiology/cardiology procedures, is less than 100 millirem per year. For radiation workers, the federal and state annual radiation exposure limits are set to safe levels (negligible risk of biological effects). The annual whole body radiation exposure limit is 5000 millirem. For radiation workers, the federal and state annual radiation exposure limits are set to safe levels (negligible risk of biological effects). The annual whole body radiation exposure limit is 5000 millirem.

7. Radiation Exposure Roentgens still used. Roentgens still used. One Roentgen = 2.58 Coulomb/KG of air One Roentgen = 2.58 Coulomb/KG of air Therefore, Roentgen is measured as Q/m Therefore, Roentgen is measured as Q/m Q/m = Charge/Mass Q/m = Charge/Mass Useful in the range of photon energies used in radiological sciences. Useful in the range of photon energies used in radiological sciences.

8. Radiation Exposure Continued, Devices expressly designed to measure exposure are called air ionization chambers. Devices expressly designed to measure exposure are called air ionization chambers.

9. Exposure Must be able to assess the intensity of radiation in an environment. Must be able to assess the intensity of radiation in an environment. Devices can measure the magnitude of electrical charge produced in a detector. Devices can measure the magnitude of electrical charge produced in a detector. Radiation Exposure means the quantity of electrical charged produced per unit mass of air in a detector Radiation Exposure means the quantity of electrical charged produced per unit mass of air in a detector

10. Exposure Mathematical Definition: Mathematical Definition: X = Q/m X = Q/m where X = Exposure where X = Exposure Q = charge (in Coulombs) Q = charge (in Coulombs) m = mass of air m = mass of air

11. Units used for Exposure Roentgen: 2.58 x 10**-4 C/kg. Roentgen: 2.58 x 10**-4 C/kg. Still widely used. Still widely used. Most survey meters have scales in units of R, and in cpm Most survey meters have scales in units of R, and in cpm

12. What is a “Dose” of Radiation? When radiation’s energy is deposited into our body’s tissues, that is a dose of radiation. When radiation’s energy is deposited into our body’s tissues, that is a dose of radiation. The more energy deposited into the body, the higher the dose. The more energy deposited into the body, the higher the dose. Rad is a unit of measure for radiation dose. Rad is a unit of measure for radiation dose. Small doses expressed in mrem = 1/1000 rem. Small doses expressed in mrem = 1/1000 rem. Rem & R (Roentgens) are similar units that are often equated to the Rad. Rem & R (Roentgens) are similar units that are often equated to the Rad.

13. Radiation Absorbed Dose (RAD) Absorbed dose is measured as E/m Absorbed dose is measured as E/m Where E=energy, m = mass of absorber material. Where E=energy, m = mass of absorber material. 1 joule = 1.0 x 10 7 ergs 1 joule = 1.0 x 10 7 ergs 1 RAD = 100 ergs of energy deposited /gram of absorbing material. 1 RAD = 100 ergs of energy deposited /gram of absorbing material. One Rad = 1.0 x 10 5 ergs/kilogram. One Rad = 1.0 x 10 5 ergs/kilogram.

14. Radiation Absorbed Dose (Gray) One Gray = 1 Joule/kg One Gray = 1 Joule/kg 1 joule = 1.0 x 10 7 ergs 1 joule = 1.0 x 10 7 ergs And one Rad = 1.0 x 10 5 ergs/kilogram. And one Rad = 1.0 x 10 5 ergs/kilogram. Therefore, one Gray = 100 rads. Therefore, one Gray = 100 rads. 1 rad = 0.01 Gray 1 rad = 0.01 Gray

15. Absorbed Dose Measurements We want to be able to quantify the amount of damage to a unit mass of tissue. We want to be able to quantify the amount of damage to a unit mass of tissue. RAD: Radiation Absorbed Dose RAD: Radiation Absorbed Dose SI Unit: Gray SI Unit: Gray 1 Gray = 100 Rads 1 Gray = 100 Rads 1 Gray = 1 joule/kg of tissue. 1 Gray = 1 joule/kg of tissue. 1 rad = 100 ergs/gm. 1 rad = 100 ergs/gm.

16. Dose Equivalent Different biological effects results from the same dose of different types of radiation. Different biological effects results from the same dose of different types of radiation. DE = DQN DE = DQN Where, D = absorbed dose in Grays or rads, Q = quality factor for the type of radiation, N = product of all other modifying factors that apply in a given situation. Where, D = absorbed dose in Grays or rads, Q = quality factor for the type of radiation, N = product of all other modifying factors that apply in a given situation.

17. Equivalent to What? The dose of one type of radiation that produces the same amount of biological damage as the dose of a reference radiation which produces the equivalent amount of damage.

18. Effective Dose Equivalent H E = Σw i x H i H E = Σw i x H i Where: H E = Effective dose equivalent, Where: H E = Effective dose equivalent, Σ w i x H i Means “the sum of” the product of individual dose equivalents and weighting factor for the particular organ. Σ w i x H i Means “the sum of” the product of individual dose equivalents and weighting factor for the particular organ.

19. Effective Dose Equivalent The effective dose equivalent for the whole- body is the sum of dose-equivalents for various organs in the body weighted to account for different sensitivities of the organs to radiation. It includes the dose from radiation sources internal and/or external to the body. The effective dose equivalent is usually expressed in units of millirem (mrem). The effective dose equivalent for the whole- body is the sum of dose-equivalents for various organs in the body weighted to account for different sensitivities of the organs to radiation. It includes the dose from radiation sources internal and/or external to the body. The effective dose equivalent is usually expressed in units of millirem (mrem).

20. Q Factor Dose is influenced by LET: ionization per unit path length. Dose is influenced by LET: ionization per unit path length. LET measured as keV/mm or micron. LET measured as keV/mm or micron. RBE: Relative Biological Effectiveness, determines the dose equivalent. RBE: Relative Biological Effectiveness, determines the dose equivalent. RBE defined: The ratio of the absorbed dose that produces the same damage as the reference dose. RBE defined: The ratio of the absorbed dose that produces the same damage as the reference dose.

21. Biological Effectiveness Not all types of radiation produce the same level of damage. Not all types of radiation produce the same level of damage. Higher LET, such as charged particles, will produce greater damage along a path length/ amount of energy imparted to tissue. Higher LET, such as charged particles, will produce greater damage along a path length/ amount of energy imparted to tissue. A quality factor (RBE) relative biological effectiveness, is applied to measurements to account for this. A quality factor (RBE) relative biological effectiveness, is applied to measurements to account for this.

22. Biological Effectiveness REM: Roentgen Equivalent Man. REM: Roentgen Equivalent Man. REM takes dose measured in rads and multiplies by the QF to obtain the dose equivalent. Equivalent to what? REM takes dose measured in rads and multiplies by the QF to obtain the dose equivalent. Equivalent to what? Gamma and beta radiation are assigned 1. Gamma and beta radiation are assigned 1. Therefore, alpha, with QF of 20, is equivalent to 20 times the damage from the same dose of gamma radiation. Therefore, alpha, with QF of 20, is equivalent to 20 times the damage from the same dose of gamma radiation.

23. RBE Examples If 20 RADs of x-rays produce the same biological damage as one rad of neutrons, the RBE is 20. The quality Factor for x-rays of this type is therefore 20. If 20 RADs of x-rays produce the same biological damage as one rad of neutrons, the RBE is 20. The quality Factor for x-rays of this type is therefore 20. QF is really the only modifying factor used in practice. Therefore N in the above equation can be set to 1, giving:DE = DxQ QF is really the only modifying factor used in practice. Therefore N in the above equation can be set to 1, giving:DE = DxQ

24. Units of Radioactivity Curie (Ci): 3.7 x 10 10 dps Curie (Ci): 3.7 x 10 10 dps milliCurie (mCi): 3.7 x 10 7 dps milliCurie (mCi): 3.7 x 10 7 dps microCurie (uCi): 3.7 x 10 4 dps microCurie (uCi): 3.7 x 10 4 dps Bequerel (Bq): 1 dps Bequerel (Bq): 1 dps kiloBequerel (kBq): 1.0 x 10 3 dps kiloBequerel (kBq): 1.0 x 10 3 dps megaBequerel (kBq): 1.0 x 10 6 dps megaBequerel (kBq): 1.0 x 10 6 dps

25. Half-Life Half-life is the amount of time needed for the activity to reach one half of the original amount. Half-life is the amount of time needed for the activity to reach one half of the original amount. f 1 2 t T 1/2 fe t ln()2 T 1/2 Days 020406080100 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 One half-life Two half-lives 0.007

26. Some Other Terms Flux: # of neutrons, photons, etc, passing through one cm 2 /instant of time Flux: # of neutrons, photons, etc, passing through one cm 2 /instant of time Fluence: # of neutrons, photons, etc, that passed through one cm 2 over a period of time. Fluence: # of neutrons, photons, etc, that passed through one cm 2 over a period of time. Cross Section: a probability of interaction, and thus transmutation after target bombardment. Cross Section: a probability of interaction, and thus transmutation after target bombardment.

27. Measurement of Radioactivity Gas filled detectors. Gas filled detectors. Radiation ionizes gas molecules. The free electrons are attracted to the anode, positive charges to the cathode. Radiation ionizes gas molecules. The free electrons are attracted to the anode, positive charges to the cathode. This exists because there is a potential difference across the electrodes. This exists because there is a potential difference across the electrodes.

28. Detecting and Measuring Radiation Instruments: Verify presence of radiation or locate contamination Verify presence of radiation or locate contamination - GM Survey Meter (Geiger counter) - NaI Survey Meter (Sodium iodide detector) Personal Dosimeters: Measure doses (radiation exposure) to staff Measure doses (radiation exposure) to staff –Radiation Badge: Luxel / Film / TLD

29. Typical background is 0.03 mR/hr or 100 cpm GM pancake probe NaI probe Range selector Battery check

30. Review of Sample Dosimetry Report Series code “F” Series code “F” Participant Number (Part. No.) Participant Number (Part. No.) Dosimeter (Badge) type – “chest” vs. “collar” Dosimeter (Badge) type – “chest” vs. “collar” 3 Categories of Exposure / Exposure Limits (Deep/Eye/Shallow) 3 Categories of Exposure / Exposure Limits (Deep/Eye/Shallow) Wear Period Wear Period Quarterly exposures Quarterly exposures Year to date Year to date Lifetime Lifetime

32. Regions Recombination: If the voltage is to low, the ions recombine before reaching the electrodes. Recombination: If the voltage is to low, the ions recombine before reaching the electrodes. Ionization (Ion Chambers) Size of pulse directly related to energy deposited. Thus, can measure exposure in Roentgens. Ionization (Ion Chambers) Size of pulse directly related to energy deposited. Thus, can measure exposure in Roentgens. Proportional Basically the same as Ion except stronger signal. Probably better in lower radiation areas where you still want exposure measurements. Proportional Basically the same as Ion except stronger signal. Probably better in lower radiation areas where you still want exposure measurements.

33. Regions Geiger-Mueller (The Geiger counter) Very sensitive to small amounts of radiation. Best calibrated for cpm and to locate radiation. Geiger-Mueller (The Geiger counter) Very sensitive to small amounts of radiation. Best calibrated for cpm and to locate radiation. Use ion chamber for exposure (hence dose) Use ion chamber for exposure (hence dose)

34. Scintillation Detectors. The most sensitive to radiation. Calibrated in cpm. The most sensitive to radiation. Calibrated in cpm. Can detect very small amounts. Can detect very small amounts. The type of survey meter that is used at landfills The type of survey meter that is used at landfills

35. Multichannel Analyzers It should be easy to differentiate between the types of radiation if there exists a relationship between energy deposited in a crystal, and size of pulse. It should be easy to differentiate between the types of radiation if there exists a relationship between energy deposited in a crystal, and size of pulse. Therefore, one can discriminate between various energy levels. Therefore, one can discriminate between various energy levels. Very useful for the identification of types of radiation. Very useful for the identification of types of radiation. In imaging, isolates the energy used for imaging, such as Tc-99m In imaging, isolates the energy used for imaging, such as Tc-99m

36. Image of the Week Neurological PET We will now examine the effects of various external stimuli on the PET scan image. The first stimulation is auditory, i.e. the subject will listen to some music. Notice the increased activity in the PET image containing the auditory cortex. Note that nonverbal stimuli (music) predominantly activates the nondominant (right) hemisphere. Simultaneous stimulation with language and music would cause a more bilateral activation of the auditory cortex. Image of the Week Neurological PET We will now examine the effects of various external stimuli on the PET scan image. The first stimulation is auditory, i.e. the subject will listen to some music. Notice the increased activity in the PET image containing the auditory cortex. Note that nonverbal stimuli (music) predominantly activates the nondominant (right) hemisphere. Simultaneous stimulation with language and music would cause a more bilateral activation of the auditory cortex.

37. The subject now must perform a "thinking" task, Notice the increased activity in the stimulated brain PET image (arrowhead). This region of increased activity corresponds to the frontal cortex