1. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks1 Outline Chapter 2: Direct Link Networks Encoding Framing Error Detection Sliding Window Algorithm Point-to-Point Links

2. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks2 Direct Link Networks

3. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks3 Direct Link Networks Hosts are directly connected by some medium –Twisted pair: telephone cable, Ethernet (Category 5: Cat5) –Coaxial pair: TV –Optical Fiber –Wireless: Infrared, Radio, Microwave Common bandwidth designators: –DS1 (or T1): 1.544 Mbps –DS3 (or T3): 44.736 Mbps (for example, Charter Athens has 2 DS3 links now) –STS-1 (OC1): 51.840 Mbps –STS-12: 622.080 Mbps …

4. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks4 Last Mile Plain Old Telephone Service) POTS: –28.8 Kbps to 56 Kbps ISDN xDSL 1.544 Mbps to 8.448 Mbps Cable (40 Mbps down, 20 Mbps up) – Shared –wish we can get that much huh?

5. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks5 Encoding

6. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks6 Encoding Signals propagate over a physical medium –modulate electromagnetic waves –e.g., vary voltage Encode binary data onto signals –e.g., 0 as low signal and 1 as high signal –known as Non-Return to zero (NRZ) Bits NRZ 0010111101000010

7. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks7 Problem: Consecutive 1s or 0s Low signal (0) may be interpreted as no signal High signal (1) leads to baseline wander Unable to recover clock

8. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks8 Alternative Encodings Non-return to Zero Inverted (NRZI) –make a transition from current signal to encode a one; stay at current signal to encode a zero –solves the problem of consecutive ones Manchester –transmit XOR of the NRZ encoded data and the clock –only 50% efficient.

9. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks9 Encodings (cont) 4B/5B –every 4 bits of data encoded in a 5-bit code –5-bit codes selected to have no more than one leading 0 and no more than two trailing 0s –thus, never get more than three consecutive 0s –resulting 5-bit codes are transmitted using NRZI –achieves 80% efficiency

10. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks10 Encodings (cont) Bits NRZ Clock Manchester NRZI 0010111101000010

11. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks11 Framing

12. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks12 Framing Break sequence of bits into a frame Typically implemented by network adaptor Frames Bits Adaptor Node BNode A

13. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks13 Approaches Sentinel-based –delineate frame with special pattern: 01111110 –e.g., HDLC (ISO), SDLC (IBM), PPP (dialup) –problem: what if the special pattern appears in the payload itself? –solution: bit stuffing sender: insert 0 after five consecutive 1s receiver: delete 0 that follows five consecutive 1s HeaderBody 816 8 CRC Beginning sequence Ending sequence

14. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks14 Approaches (cont) Counter-based –include payload length in header –e.g., DDCMP (DECNET) –problem: count field itself corrupted –solution: catch when CRC fails SYN HeaderBody 88421416 8 SYN Class CRCCount

15. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks15 Approaches (cont) Clock-based –each frame is 125us long –e.g., SONET: Synchronous Optical Network –STS-n (STS-1 = 51.84 Mbps) Overhead Payload 90 columns 9 rows Three STS-1 frames multiplexed onto one STS-3c

16. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks16 Error Detection

17. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks17 Cyclic Redundancy Check Add k bits of redundant data to an n-bit message –want k << n –e.g., k = 32 and n = 12,000 (1500 bytes) Represent n-bit message as n-1 degree polynomial –e.g., MSG=10011010 as M(x) = x7 + x4 + x3 + x1 Let k be the degree of some divisor polynomial –e.g., C(x) = x3 + x2 + 1

18. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks18 CRC (cont) Transmit polynomial P(x) that is evenly divisible by C(x) –shift left k bits, i.e., M(x)xk –subtract remainder of M(x)xk / C(x) from M(x)xk Receiver polynomial P(x) + E(x) –E(x) = 0 implies no errors Divide (P(x) + E(x)) by C(x); remainder zero if: –E(x) was zero (no error), or –E(x) is exactly divisible by C(x)

19. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks19 Selecting C(x) All single-bit errors, as long as the xk and x0 terms have non-zero coefficients. All double-bit errors, as long as C(x) contains a factor with at least three terms Any odd number of errors, as long as C(x) contains the factor (x + 1) Any ‘burst’ error (i.e., sequence of consecutive error bits) for which the length of the burst is less than k bits. Most burst errors of larger than k bits can also be detected See Table 2.6 on page 102 for common C(x)

20. 27-Oct-15Computer Networks20 Internet Checksum Algorithm View message as a sequence of 16-bit integers; sum using 16-bit ones-complement arithmetic; take ones-complement of the result. u_short cksum(u_short *buf, int count) { register u_long sum = 0; while (count--){ sum += *buf++; if (sum & 0xFFFF0000){ /* carry occurred, so wrap around */ sum &= 0xFFFF; sum++; } return ~(sum & 0xFFFF); }