1. Thinking and Language Chapter 8 1

2. Language Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work, is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves and others. 2 Language transmits culture. M. & E. Bernheim/ Woodfin Camp & Associates

3. Language Development Children learn their native languages much before learning to add 2+2. We learn, on average (after age 1), 3,500 words a year, amassing 60,000 words by the time we graduate from high school. 3 Time Life Pictures/ Getty Images

4. When do we learn language? Babbling StageBabbling Stage: Beginning at 4 months, the infant spontaneously utters various sounds, like ah- goo. Babbling is not imitation of adult speech. 4

5. When do we learn language? 5 One-Word StageOne-Word Stage: Beginning at or around his first birthday, a child starts to speak one word at a time and is able to make family members understand him. The word doggy may mean look at the dog out there. Gwen “Eat- Ot”Gwen “Eat- Ot” (about 16 months old) Gwen practices letters Gwennie wanna cracker

6. When do we learn language? Two-Word Stage: Before the 2nd year, a child starts to speak in two-word sentences. This form of speech is called telegraphic speech because the child speaks like a telegram: “Go car,” means I would like to go for a ride in the car. Gwen starting to count Gwen sings Old MacDonald Gwen names dinosaurs 6

7. When do we learn language? 7 Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech, children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early elementary school they are employing humor. You never starve in the desert because of all the sand-which-is there. Gwen reads Animal Serenade Gwen sings We Wish You a Merry Christmas

8. Overregularization Applying regular rules to all situations I “goed” to the store. Momma “taked” the clothes out of the dryer. 8

9. When do we learn language? 9

10. Explaining Language Development 1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985) believed that language development may be explained on the basis of learning principles such as association, imitation, and reinforcement. 10

11. Explaining Language Development 2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959, 1987) opposed Skinner’s ideas and suggested that the rate of language acquisition is so fast that it cannot be explained through learning principles, and thus most of it is inborn. Language Acquisition Device 3. Interactionist ◦ Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories 11

12. Theories of Language Acquisition Behaviorist ◦ Skinner  learning of specific verbal responses Nativist ◦ Chomsky  learning the rules of language  Language Acquisition Device (LAD) Interactionist ◦ Cognitive, social communication, and emergentist theories

13. Thinking and Language Chapter 8 (Part 2) 13

14. Explaining Language Development Childhood is a critical period for fully developing certain aspects of language. Children never exposed to any language (spoken or signed) by about age 7 gradually lose their ability to master any language. 14

15. Genes, Brain, & Language Genes design the mechanisms for a language, and experience modifies the brain. 15 Michael Newman/ Photo Edit, Inc. Eye of Science/ Photo Researchers, Inc. David Hume Kennerly/ Getty Images

16. Critical Period Learning new languages gets harder with age. The Case of Genie 16

17. The Case of Genie Describe what happened to “Genie” ◦ Include background information ◦ How was her brain development affected? ◦ What became of Genie? ◦ What have we learned about language development from this case? Write at least ½ a page; due today 17

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19. Thinking & Language Language and thinking intricately intertwine. 19 Rubber Ball/ Almay

20. Language Influences Thinking Linguistic Determinism: Whorf (1956) suggested that language determines the way we think. For example, he noted that the Hopi people do not have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopi cannot think readily about the past. “Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis ” (Eskimo words for snow) 20

21. Language Influences Thinking When a language provides words for objects or events, we can think about these objects more clearly and remember them. It is easier to think about two colors with two different names (A) than colors with the same name (B) (Özgen, 2004). 21

22. New Words in 2013… babymoon blondie buzzworthy cake pop chandelier earring digital detox emoji fauxhawk flatform food baby geek chic guac hackerspace me time pixie cut selfie space tourism street food twerk unlike 22

23. Word Power -Increasing word power pays its dividends. It helps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual children to inhibit one language while using another. -Research is divided and incomplete about bilingualism -Acculturation 23

24. Thinking in Images To a large extent thinking is language-based. When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However, we also think in images. 24 2. When we are riding our bicycle. 1. When we open the hot water tap. We don’t think in words, when:

25. Images and Brain Imagining a physical activity activates the same brain regions as when actually performing the activity. 25 Jean Duffy Decety, September 2003

26. Language and Thinking Traffic runs both ways between language and thinking. 26

27. Animal Thinking & Language Do animals have a language? 27 Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.

28. Do Animals Think? Common cognitive skills in humans and apes include the following: 28 1.Concept Formation 2.Insight 3.Problem Solving 4.Culture African grey parrot sorts red blocks from green balls. William Munoz

29. Insight Chimpanzees show insightful behavior when solving problems. 29 Sultan uses sticks to get food.

30. Problem Solving Apes are, much like us, shaped by reinforcement when solving problems. 30 Chimpanzee fishing for ants. Courtesy of Jennifer Byrne, c/o Richard Byrne, Department of Psychology, University of St. Andrews, Scotland

31. Animal Culture Animals display customs and culture that are learned and transmitted over generations. 31 Dolphins using sponges as forging tools. Chimpanzee mother using and teaching a young how to use a stone hammer. Copyright Amanda K Coakes Michael Nichols/ National Geographic Society

32. Do Animals Exhibit Language? There is no doubt that animals communicate. Vervet monkeys, whales and even honey bees communicate with members of their species and other species. (Einstein the Parrot) 32 Rico (collie) has a 200-word vocabulary Copyright Baus/ Kreslowski

33. The Case of Apes Gardner and Gardner (1969) used American Sign Language (ASL) to train Washoe (3:20), a chimp, who learned 181 signs by the age of 32. Washoe 33

34. Gestured Communication Animals, like humans, exhibit communication through gestures. It is possible that vocal speech developed from gestures during the course of evolution. 34

35. Sign Language American Sign Language (ASL) is instrumental in teaching chimpanzees a form of communication. 35 When asked, this chimpanzee uses a sign to say it is a baby. Paul Fusco/ Magnum Photos

36. Syntax Comprehension Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzees can develop even greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuances in learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi (shown below) developed vocabulary for hundreds of words and phrases. 36 Copyright of Great Ape Trust of Iowa

37. But Can Apes Really Talk? 1. Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a great deal of difficulty, unlike children who develop vocabularies at amazing rates. 2. Chimpanzees can make signs to receive a reward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key receives a reward. However, pigeons have not learned a language. 3. Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lack human syntax. 4. Presented with ambiguous information, people tend to see what they want to see (perceptual set). 37

38. Language: Turning Thoughts into Words Properties of Language (IMPORTANT!!!) ◦ Symbolic--spoken sounds and written words to represent objects, actions, events, and ideas. ◦ Semantic--meaningful ◦ Generative--a limited number of symbols can be combined in an infinite number of ways to generate novel messages ◦ Structured--there are rules that govern arrangement of words into phrases and sentences.

39. The Hierarchical Structure of Language Phonemes = smallest speech units ◦ 100 possible, English – about 40 Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning ◦ 50,000 in English, root words, prefixes, suffixes Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations ◦ Objects and actions to which words refer Syntax = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences ◦ Different rules for different languages

40. The handsome soccer player scored a goal. 1) Phoneme: “goal” has 3 phonemes—g, o, l 2) Morpheme: “player” has 2 morphemes—play and er 3) Semantics: the meaning of the words & sentences 4) Syntax: “handsome” is an adjective that goes before the noun it describes, for ex. 40

41. Thinking Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. 41

42. Cognitive Psychologists Thinking involves a number of mental activities, which are listed below. Cognitive psychologists study these in great detail. 42 1.Concepts 2.Problem solving 3.Decision making 4.Judgment formation

43. Concepts The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair. 43

44. Category Hierarchies We organize concepts into category hierarchies. 44 Courtesy of Christine Brune

45. Development of Concepts 45 We form some concepts with definitions. For example, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, we form concepts with mental images or typical examples (prototypes). For example, a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not. Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image) Daniel J. Cox/ Getty Images J. Messerschmidt/ The Picture Cube

46. Problem Solving Problem solving strategies include: 46 1.Trial and Error 2.Algorithms 3.Heuristics 4.Insight

47. Trial & Error Trying possible solutions and throwing out ones that don’t work until you find one that does work Random/haphazard 47

48. Algorithms Algorithms, which are very time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. (more systematic and less random) 48 S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

49. Heuristics (guiding principle/rule of thumb) 49 Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

50. Heuristics Heuristics make it easier for us to use simple principles to arrive at solutions to problems. 50 S P L O Y O C H Y G S P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y Put a Y at the end, and see if the word begins to make sense.

51. Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. 51 Grande using boxes to obtain food

52. Insight Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung- Beeman & others, 2004). The time between not knowing the solution and realizing it is about 0.3 seconds. 52 From Mark Jung-Beekman, Northwestern University and John Kounios, Drexel University

53. Obstacles in Solving Problems Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 53

54. Fixation Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective. This impedes problem solving. An example of fixation is functional fixedness. 54 The Matchstick Problem: How would you arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles? From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

55. Mental Set the tendency to approach situations in a certain way because that method worked in the past 55

56. Candle-Mounting Problem Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board? 56 From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

57. The Matchstick Problem: Solution 57 From “Problem Solving” by M. Scheerer. Copyright © 1963 by Scientific American, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

58. Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution 58

59. Making Decision & Forming Judgments Each day we make hundreds of judgments and decisions based on our intuition, seldom using systematic reasoning. 59

60. Using and Misusing Heuristics Two kinds of heuristics, representative heuristics and availability heuristics, have been identified by cognitive psychologists. 60 Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and the Tversky family Courtesy of Greymeyer Award, University of Louisville and Daniel Kahneman

61. Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype. 61 Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors. If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be? An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?

62. Availability Heuristic -basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant examples come to mind Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. 62 How is retrieval facilitated? 1.How recently we have heard about the event. 2.How distinct it is. 3.How correct it is.

63. Gambler’s Fallacy The false belief that the probability of an event in a random sequence is dependent on preceding events, its probability increasing with each successive occasion on which it fails to occur Umm…the longer something doesn’t happen, the more probable it will occur—false! Family with 5 boys—mom is pregnant again—they think for sure it will be a girl this time—false! 63

64. Conjunction Fallacy A widespread error of judgment according to which a combination of 2 or more attributes is judged to be more probable or likely than either attribute on its own Related to representativeness heuristic Tattooed biker 64

65. Overconfidence Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. 65 In the stock market, both the seller and the buyer may be confident about their decisions on a stock.

66. Exaggerated Fear The opposite of having overconfidence is having an exaggerated fear about what may happen. Such fears may be unfounded. The 9/11 attacks led to a decline in air travel due to fear. 66 AP/ Wide World Photos

67. The Effects of Framing Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed. 67 Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?

68. The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. 68 If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility (Jervis, 1985).

69. Convergent Thinking A person attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem Narrowing down choices to one 69

70. Divergent Thinking a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem. 70