1. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–1 Schedule Today: u Transaction concepts. u Read Sections 8.6-8.7. Next u Authorization and security

2. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–2 Transaction Management Different kinds of TM systems u Airline Reservations -- many updates u Statistical Abstract of the US -- many queries Concepts u Atomicity – all or nothing principle u Serializability – the effect of transactions as if they occurred one at a time

3. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–3 Transaction Management Data Items – units of data to be controlled granularity u fine-grained – small items u course-grained – large items Controlling access by locks u Read – sharable with other readers shared u Write – not sharable with anyone else exclusive

4. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–4 Transactions = units of work that must be: 1. Atomic = either all work is done, or none of it. 2. Consistent = relationships among values maintained. 3. Isolated = appear to have been executed when no other DB operations were being performed. u Often called serializable behavior. 4. Durable = effects are permanent even if system crashes.

5. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–5 Commit/Abort Decision Each transaction ends with either: 1. Commit = the work of the transaction is installed in the database; previously its changes may be invisible to other transactions. 2. Abort = no changes by the transaction appear in the database; it is as if the transaction never occurred.  ROLLBACK is the term used in SQL and the Oracle system. In the ad-hoc query interface (e.g., pl/sql interface), transactions are single queries or modification statements.  Oracle allows SET TRANSACTION READ ONLY to begin a multistatement transaction that doesn't change any data, but needs to see a consistent “snapshot” of the data. In program interfaces, transactions begin whenever the database is accessed, and end when either a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement is executed.

6. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–6 Example Sells(bar, beer, price) Joe's Bar sells Bud for $2.50 and Miller for $3.00. Sally is querying the database for the highest and lowest price Joe charges: (1) SELECT MAX(price) FROM Sells WHERE bar = 'Joe''s Bar'; (2) SELECT MIN(price) FROM Sells WHERE bar = 'Joe''s Bar'; At the same time, Joe has decided to replace Miller and Bud by Heineken at $3.50: (3) DELETE FROM Sells WHERE bar = 'Joe''s Bar' AND (beer = 'Miller' OR beer = 'Bud'); (4) INSERT INTO Sells VALUES('Joe''s bar', 'Heineken', 3.50); If the order of statements is 1, 3, 4, 2, then it appears to Sally that Joe’s minimum price is greater than his maximum price. Fix the problem by grouping Sally’s two statements into one transaction, e.g., with one SQL statement.

7. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–7 Example: Problem With Rollback Suppose Joe executes statement 4 (insert Heineken), but then, during the transaction thinks better of it and issues a ROLLBACK statement. If Sally is allowed to execute her statement 1 (find max) just before the rollback, she gets the answer $3.50, even though Joe doesn't sell any beer for $3.50. Fix by making statement 4 a transaction, or part of a transaction, so its effects cannot be seen by Sally unless there is a COMMIT action.

8. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–8 SQL Isolation Levels Isolation levels determine what a transaction is allowed to see. The declaration, valid for one transaction, is: SET TRANSACTION ISOLATION LEVEL X ; where: X = SERIALIZABLE : this transaction must execute as if at a point in time, where all other transactions occurred either completely before or completely after.  Example: Suppose Sally's statements 1 and 2 are one transaction and Joe's statements 3 and 4 are another transaction. If Sally's transaction runs at isolation level SERIALIZABLE, she would see the Sells relation either before or after statements 3 and 4 ran, but not in the middle.

9. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–9 X = READ COMMITTED : this transaction can read only committed data.  Example: if transactions are as above, Sally could see the original Sells for statement 1 and the completely changed Sells for statement 2. X = REPEATABLE READ : if a transaction reads data twice, then what it saw the first time, it will see the second time (it may see more the second time).  Moreover, all data read at any time must be committed; i.e., REPEATABLE READ is a strictly stronger condition than READ COMMITTED. u Example: If 1 is executed before 3, then 2 must see the Bud and Miller tuples when it computes the min, even if it executes after 3. But if 1 executes between 3 and 4, then 2 may see the Heineken tuple.

10. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–10 X = READ UNCOMMITTED : essentially no constraint, even on reading data written and then removed by a rollback. u Example: 1 and 2 could see Heineken, even if Joe rolled back his transaction.

11. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–11 Independence of Isolation Levels Isolation levels describe what a transaction T with that isolation level sees. They do not constrain what other transactions, perhaps at different isolation levels, can see of the work done by T. Example If transaction 3-4 (Joe) runs serializable, but transaction 1-2 (Sally) does not, then Sally might see NULL as the value for both min and max, since it could appear to Sally that her transaction ran between steps 3 and 4.

12. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–12 Example Transaction T1 T2 start with A = 5 Read A (5) A in DB Read A (5) 5 A:= A + 1 (6) 5 A:= 2* A (10) 5 Write A (10) 10 Write A (6) 6

13. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–13 Fix It With 2 Phase Locking All items have read locks and write locks Read locks are shared, write locks are exclusive Phase I: All requesting of locks precedes Phase II: Any releasing of locks Effect is that all locks are held until transaction is ready to commit Theorem: Any schedule for 2-phase locked transaction is serializable

14. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–14 Lock Compatibility Matrix THEM RLOCK A NO R W WLOCK A NO OK OK OK UNLOCK A US R OK OK bad W OK bad bad RLOCK –> UNLOCK can enclose a read WLOCK –> UNLOCK can enclose a write or read

15. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–15 T1 T2A WLOCK A 5 Read A 5 WLOCK A 5 A:= A+1 Write A waits 6 UNLOCK A 6 granted Read A 6 A:=2*A Write A12 UNLOCK A

16. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–16 Possible Problem! T1 T2 RLOCK A Read A RLOCK A Read A A:= A+1 A:= 2*A WLOCK A upgrade lock request wait waits Deadlock!

17. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–17 Deadlock AND 1. Wait and hold hold some locks while you wait for others 2. Circular chain of waiters T4 wait-for graph T1 T3 T2 3. No pre-emption We can avoid deadlock by doing at least ONE of: 1. Get all your locks at once 2. Apply an ordering to acquiring locks 3. Allow preemption (for example, use timeout on waits)

18. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–18 Can we avoid deadlock by releasing locks (not using 2 phase locking)? Why do we have to hold locks even after the transaction is no longer using the data item?? Opens up the possibility of cascading aborts

19. SCUJoAnne Holliday11–19 ABORT CAN CAUSE CASCADING ROLLBACK T1T2 LOCK A Read A change A Write A UNLOCK A LOCK A Read A change A Write A UNLOCK A LOCK B Read B Discover problem ABORT Need to undo the change to A CASCADED ABORT