1. Republican government: 1. Consuls (two, elected yearly, lead state, command armies, propose laws) 2. Senate (advises consuls, controls finances, involved in justice, foreign policy) 3. Plebeian Assembly (Comitia Tributa, led by two elected tribunes, involved in justice, accepts/rejects laws, debates wars)

2. Carthage 264-41 BC First Punic War, ends with Sicily becoming first Roman province 239 Sardinia and Corsica come under Roman control 218-201 Second Punic War

3. Saguntum 216 BC Hannibal defeats Romans at Cannae, one of many defeats that he inflicts on them 202 Scipio defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama

4. Issues arising from Punic Wars: Accumulation of land in hands of rich Unemployment Shortage of manpower for army 133 BC Tiberius Gracchus, tribune of Plebeian Assembly, forces through legislation redistributing public land

5. 123-22 BC Gaius Gracchus serves two terms as tribune of the people. Enacts various reforms, including: 1. Road-building 2. Grain law 3. Military law 4. Laws about new colonies 5. Tax reforms 6. Transfer of control of law courts to equites (Knights)

6. popularesvs.optimates (sing. popularis)(sing. optimatis) 107 BC Gaius Marius becomes consul, enacts reform of army 90-88 Italian/Social War 90 Romans pass series of bills granting Roman citizenship to most peoples of Italian peninsula